SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online

 
vol.39 issue1Norming studies for lexicosemantic and affective characteristics of European Portuguese words: A literature review author indexsubject indexarticles search
Home Pagealphabetic serial listing  

Services on Demand

Journal

Article

Indicators

Related links

  • Have no similar articlesSimilars in SciELO

Share


Análise Psicológica

Print version ISSN 0870-8231On-line version ISSN 1646-6020

Aná. Psicológica vol.39 no.1 Lisboa June 2021  Epub June 30, 2021

https://doi.org/10.14417/ap.1778 

Métodos e Instrumentos de Investigação

Behavior as a stereotype cue: An European Portuguese pretest on age and gender stereotypes

Comportamento como pista para estereótipo: Um pré-teste de estereótipos de idade e género em Português Europeu

Margarida Cipriano* 
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2091-8380

André Ribeiro Vaz* 
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3352-5455

Jéssica Rolho* 

Ana Sofia Santos* 
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4954-483X

Paula Carneiro* 

* CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal


Abstract

When it comes to the study of stereotypes, plenty of material can be of use. While personality traits tend to be the most commonly adopted, behavioral information can also be relevant, both in the study of stereotypes, as well as in other research fields (e.g., illusory correlations, memory and judgement and decision making). The purpose of this paper was to create a readily available list of behavioral sentences with stereotypicality ratings for both age (young to old) and gender (woman to man) categories, to be used in future studies. In two studies, participants judged age and gender stereotypicality of more than two hundred sentences in European Portuguese. Results were stable across both studies, using different methodologies (three alternative forced-choice task, in Study 1; bipolar rating scale, in Study 2). Relative frequencies for each choice, as well as average ratings, per behavior, are provided at the end.

Key words: Gender stereotypes; Age stereotypes; Behaviors; Intersectionality.

Resumo

No estudo dos estereótipos, vários tipos de materiais podem ser utilizados. Ainda que traços de personalidade tendam a ser os estímulos usados com mais frequência, informação comportamental também pode ser relevante, quer no estudo de estereótipos, quer noutras áreas de investigação (e.g., correlações ilusórias, memória, e julgamento e tomada de decisão). O objectivo deste trabalho foi o de criar e disponibilizar uma lista de frases comportamentais com avaliações de estereotipicidade para categorias de idade (novo a velho) e género (mulher a homem), para uso em estudos futuros. Em dois estudos, os participantes julgaram a estereotipicidade de idade e género de mais de duzentas frases em Português Europeu. Os resultados foram estáveis entre os dois estudos, usando diferentes metodologias (tarefa de escolha forçada entre três alternativas, no Estudo 1; escala de classificação bipolar, no Estudo 2). As frequências relativas de cada escolha, bem como as classificações médias, por comportamento, são disponibilizadas no final.

Palavras-chave: Estereótipos de género; Estereótipos de idade; Comportamentos; Interseccionalidade.

Introduction

Stereotypes can be defined as socially shared cognitive representations about human groups and social categories (Garcia-Marques & Garcia-Marques, 2003). According to Allport (1954), stereotypes result from the normal functioning of the human mind, and usually from a process of categorization, in which individuals adapt to the natural and social environment that surrounds them. As with most heuristics, stereotypes simplify the world around us, helping to make decisions, which we tend to assume as generally correct. Its importance as an object of study is undeniable, with stereotypes playing such an ingrained and adaptive role in our social surroundings. That is why stereotypes have been one of the main objects of study in Social Psychology, particularly in Social Cognition.

Age and gender stereotypes are particularly interesting due to their transversality, being partly shared among different cultures (Fiske, 2017), and because of their implications in relevant areas like work and health, amongst others. Bargh et al. (1996) have shown that automatic assimilation of age stereotypes affects individuals’ behavior. In their study, participants primed with the elderly stereotype walked slower than controls, when changing between rooms during the experiment, which is consistent with the stereotype (Bargh et al., 1996, Exp. 2). In another study (Van der Horst, 2019), age stereotype assimilation has been found to lead older workers to consider that their age prevents them from performing tasks, being more pessimistic about their future health and believing that being old implies health deterioration. With respect to gender stereotypes, Heilman (2001) points out to research showing that work performance is evaluated differently according to the employee’s gender, i.e., an identical work product is rated as inferior when performed by a female employee, and this is true even when women are in higher positions. Shenouda and Danovitch (2014) argued that gender stereotypes are not relevant only at adulthood or in the work environment. Taking from previous literature showing that women under gender stereotype activation perform worse on math (vs. men, and women on control conditions), the authors have demonstrated that female children, even as young as 4 years old, have their performances affected on visuo-spatial tasks under gender stereotype activation. That result suggests that gender stereotypes can potentially affect children’s behavior and beliefs at very early developmental stages. Amâncio (e.g., Amâncio, 1993; Amâncio & Oliveira, 2006) has also produced a broad body of work demonstrating asymmetries on gender representations, with men being represented by traits associated with reason and control (objective, rational, fighter and secure) and women with traits associated to expressivity and submission (kind, curious and inferior). These stereotypic gender representations are endorsed by both genders.

But, across the literature of stereotypes, while plenty of information exists already on the stereotypicality of personality traits (e.g., Gilbert, 1951; Karlins et al., 1969; Katz & Braly, 1933; Kunda et al., 1990; Moreira et al., 2008; Rosenberg et al., 1968; Rosenberg & Jones, 1972; Santos, Almeida, et al., 2017), ready to be used, to our knowledge, normative information regarding behaviors has not been given as much attention. As such, the main purpose of this work is to provide, for future studies, a set of behavioral sentences rated in age and gender stereotypicality, considering that previous literature already suggested that both age and gender stereotypes have important theoretical and practical implications, that make their further study relevant as a research topic.

Some stereotype research has dealt with the stereotypic information associated to socially relevant categories, which can be diverse and include information such as personality traits (Katz & Braly, 1933, 1935), behaviors (Heider et al., 2007), or emotions (Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005), as a goal in itself. But, one should notice that the identification of the information that characterizes the stereotype associated to social categories is pertinent, not only as a descriptor of the stereotypes of social groups (Devine & Elliot, 1995; Fiske et al., 2002), but also as stimuli to study the cognitive processes underlying the phenomenon of stereotyping itself (Devine, 1989; Garcia-Marques et al., 2006; Hamilton & Rose, 1980; Macrae et al., 1994; Santos et al., 2012; Santos, Garcia-Marques, et al., 2017). Additionally, the identification of information that characterizes a stereotype has implications and uses beyond the typical studies on stereotypes: from memory (e.g., Heider et al., 2007; Lenton et al., 2001; Seta & Hayes, 1994); to trait inferences (e.g.,Wigboldus et al., 2003); judgement and decision making (e.g., Locklsey et al., 1982); prejudice (e.g., Sherman et al., 2005); and even organizational psychology, where age and gender stereotyping prevention is a frequent concern (e.g., Posthuma & Campion, 2009).

Despite the fact that stereotypic information associated to a social category, as noted, can take many forms, personality traits do tend to be the most common, even from the first studies about stereotypes (e.g., Katz & Braly, 1933), and perhaps because they are a very simple type of material, easily used and researched. Asch (1946) delved into how the traits relate to each other, for example, and a great deal of studies, since then, have deeply explored the processes behind their use, with paradigms such as the Spontaneous Trait Inferences (STI; e.g., Ramos et al., 2012; Todorov & Uleman, 2004; Uleman, 1987), along with studies about the Implicit Personality Theories (e.g., Rosenberg et al., 1968; Rosenberg & Jones, 1972). As opposed to personality traits, behavioral information - such as lists of sentences - is both more complex and more seldom used. When used, it is usually under the STI logic, serving only as a tool to evoke specific stereotypic traits (e.g., Heider et al., 2007; Wigboldus et al., 2003). Research on behavior stereotypicality tends, then, to merely focus on which traits each behavior represents (e.g., Jerónimo et al., 2004; Ramos & Garcia-Marques, 2006, with the traits being the true stereotypic information. Wigboldus and colleagues (2003), for example, used “winning the science quiz” as something a smart person would do, which would be stereotypical of a Professor. In this case, the behavior’s only value was that of evoking the stereotypical trait for the target category. Nevertheless, and despite their added complexity as units of information, lists of behaviors can show themselves to be interesting and relevant material to be used in the study of stereotypes. For instance, paradigms developed to study Illusory Correlations - in which a wrongful inference is made about the relationship between two situations, events, individuals, or behaviors, even when no such relationship exists (e.g., Garcia-Marques et al., 2012; Hamilton & Gifford, 1976; Hamilton & Rose, 1980) - can be extended to behaviors. With this, we do not mean to dismiss the trait-evoking potential of such behaviors; individuals can, and do, infer traits from behaviors. But we believe it to be of interest to identify behavioral stereotypic information as the object of interest in itself, which may, in future research, also better relate stereotypes and STIs, as well as expand on other areas of research, such as that of false memories.

However, an inherent cost associated with the use of these kinds of materials, of which behavioral information is no exception, are the resources necessary to pretest them. To be sure the material used in a specific study is, indeed, correctly implementing the manipulation intended, researchers must first test how typical each behavior is of the categories studied, a task that needs both a substantial amount of time (to prepare, run, and analyze the data) and participants. Thus, we intend to provide a sample of behavioral sentences in European Portuguese, as well as a measure of how stereotypical each behavior is for both gender (woman vs. man) and age (old vs. young) stereotypes. To do so, in two experiments we tested more than 200 sentences on these categories. With the materials produced, we hope to facilitate future research, not only on the subject of stereotypes, but also on all other studies that might benefit from a readily accessible and already pretested database of behaviors, for gender and age stereotypes.

STUDY 1

Within this study we aimed to provide two sets of material: one set of age stereotypical sentences (young and old, e.g., “Got a nose piercing in the weekend”, “Played domino yesterday in the afternoon”) and one set of gender stereotypical sentences (woman and man, e.g., “Wears long nails”, “Wore a tie at a wedding”). For each case, we also intended to obtain a subset of neutral sentences, sentences that would be rated as equally typical of both age sub-categories (e.g., “Drives a Fiat Uno”) or of both gender sub-categories (e.g., “Washed the dinnerware on the day after”).

Method

Participants

Seventy-five students from the University of Lisbon took part in this study in exchange for course credits: 19 were male, 54 female and 2 did not specify their gender identity, aged 18 to 54 years old (M=22.93; SD=0.71). This study was approved by the Deontological Committee of Faculdade de Psicologia of Universidade de Lisboa. All participants gave their informed consent.

Material

To create these materials, we started by listing from scratch several stereotypical behaviors of woman, man, young and old people (e.g., to play domino). Afterwards, we drafted the sentences focusing on two criteria: (1) in each sentence only one behavior should be clearly depicted; (2) it was not possible to infer target gender or age from any words presented, specifically we avoided Portuguese gendered words (e.g., in “Visited a new restaurant at the weekend.” / “Visitou um novo restaurante no fim-de-semana.” no name or pronoun indicates the subject’s age or gender groups). Although 243 sentences were created and used in the study - 120 age relevant (approximately half young and half old) and 123 gender relevant (approximately half woman and half man) - only 217 sentences met the criteria specified above. The remaining 26 sentences were excluded from the results either because they do not describe a behavior performed by the target (e.g., “Was a victim of assault.” / “Foi vítima de agressão.”), or because they denoted gender (e.g., “Is a nurse in the army” / “É enfermeira no exército.”; in the Portuguese language, nurse is a gendered word).

These sentences were divided into three booklets. Each booklet was presented to a random group of 25 participants and consisted of 81 sentences, 40 age relevant behaviors and 41 gender relevant, half from each sub-category.

Procedure

Participants individually received a printed booklet divided in two parts, presented in a fixed order. In the first part they were asked to indicate, in a three alternative forced-choice (3AFC) task, if a given sentence was typical of old, young or both age groups. In the second part, a different set of sentences was presented, and participants judged, also in a 3AFC task, if each sentence was typical of woman, man or both genders. The task was paper and pencil based, and self-paced.

Results and discussion

For each sentence, the relative frequency of each response type was calculated (old, young and both ages for age sentences and woman, man and both genders for gender sentences). The percentage of participants who rated each behavior as typical of each sub-category was used as a measure of how strongly the behavior is associated to the sub-category, that is, how typical the behavior is of that particular group. Following Hamilton and Rose’s (1980) reasoning, a sentence is considered typical of an age or gender group if its relative frequency is higher than .50. For example, the sentence “Played domino yesterday afternoon” reached .96 for the sub-category old, meaning it depicts a behavior which is highly associated with this sub-category. In the same sense, sentences with a “both” percentage higher than .50 can be considered category neutral, meaning that most participants considered that behavior to be equally typical of the two sub-categories.

The sentences were organized in two tables (Appendixes 1 and 2), one for age and the other for gender. In each table, the relative frequencies of each choice (young, old, and both, for age; woman, man, and both, for gender), per sentence, are detailed. Twenty-six sentences were removed from the tables because they did not strictly meet both criteria (clearly depicting one behavior or absence of gendered words). As a result, in the appendixes data is presented for 217 sentences.

Within this study we were able to provide a broad sample of materials that depicts typical behaviors of age and gender. However, each sentence was tested by a sample of only 25 participants. A larger sample would further support the consistency of these results. Regarding the procedure, by asking participants to judge the sentences in a 3AFC procedure we were able to find behaviors that consensually belong to a given sub-category and can discriminate between highly and mildly consensual behaviors. However, this kind of procedure does not capture the graded structure of categories (of which stereotypes are a part of): That is, the degree to which each behavior can be considered representative (i.e., stereotypical) of the gender/age sub-category to which it was attributed. For example, while “Went to hydro gymnastics during the week” and “Last year, grew lettuce in the backyard” were both categorized as typical of old people 88% of the times (showing the same level of consensus), it is possible these 2 behaviors are not equally stereotypical of old people.

Finally, a major limitation of this study can be noted, revolving around the subject of intersectionality. Several decades of literature have looked at category membership individually, that is, considering the content of each specific stereotype in isolation. In recent years, however, research on stereotypes has started to focus on how multiple group identities interact when simultaneously present, and on the implications of this interaction (see Cole, 2009, for a discussion on how the issue of intersectionality should be attended in research). For instance, Petsko and Bodenhausen (2019) argued that the social context in which the target is perceived can activate different aspects of their identity, sometimes single categories, and sometimes a combination. And, when multiple categories are activated at once, sometimes with contradictory representations, attempts to make sense of these combinations can lead to the emergency of new content, that was not stereotypical of either of the original categories (e.g., Benrós et al., 2020; Kunda et al., 1990). As such, it assumes great importance to assess how each behavior is perceived with regards to both types of categories (age and gender).

STUDY 2

A second experiment attempted to tackle these issues. Firstly, sample size was increased. Secondly, regarding the lack of stereotypicality information, the task was switched to a bipolar scale where participants rate how typical each behavior is, with the relevant sub-categories as anchors (e.g., from woman to man, or from old to young). Having a bipolar scale with both gender (or age) sub-categories as anchors allows us to obtain stereotypicality ratings on a single dimension for gender and another for age. Additionally, the middle of the scale represents behaviors that are equally typical of both sub-categories (i.e., behaviors that are not more representative of one sub-category over the other), providing a better measure for neutral behaviors. Finally, in order to address intersectionality, all sentences were judged on both age and gender categories.

Method

Participants

One hundred and twenty-eight students from the University of Lisbon took part in this study in exchange for course credits: 109 were female, 18 male and 1 non-binary, aged 17 to 63 years old (M=20.94; SD=6.19). This study was approved by the Deontological Committee of Faculdade de Psicologia of Universidade de Lisboa. All participants gave their informed consent.

Material

Participants saw the same 243 sentences as the participants in Study 1, but only the 217 sentences that met the criteria are presented in the appendixes. The sentences were divided in two sets (of 121 or 122 sentences each). Half of the sentences of each set were previously (i.e., in Study 1) evaluated on age and the other half on gender.

Procedure

Responses were collected with Qualtrics software. Participants started by giving their informed consent, and indicating their gender and age. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two sets of sentences. Each sentence in the set was presented twice, sequentially. Participants were instructed to rate each sentence on a sliding scale, once for age judgments, in a scale from young to old, according to the age typicality, and once in a scale from woman to man, according to the gender typicality. Specifically, they were told that if the behavior described in the sentence was typical of [sub-category], the slider should be closer to the left side of the scale; if they considered the behavior to be more typical of [other sub-category], it should be closer to the right side; and if they considered the behavior to be equally typical of both, the slider should be placed in the middle of the scale. The spatial position of the sub-categories (old, young, woman, and man) was counterbalanced between-subjects, as well as whether participants made the age or the gender judgments first. The order of sentences’ presentation was random.

Results and discussion

We computed the participant’s answers in a scale from -1 to 1. For age judgments, ratings closer to -1 indicated “young” behaviors, while ratings closer to 1 indicated “old” behaviors; for gender judgments, ratings closer to -1 indicated “woman” behaviors and ratings closer to 1 indicated “man” behaviors. Ratings of zero for both age and gender expressed neutral behaviors, i.e., behaviors that are equally typical of the two sub-categories. Age and gender mean ratings were calculated and are presented on Appendixes 1 and 2, respectively. Each sentence is presented on both tables, along with gender or age information. For example, the sentence “Did military service” was rated .64 on the gender scale and .58 on the age scale, meaning that this behavior is stereotypical of man and old individuals, while the sentence “Fed the pigeons, last Friday” was rated 0 on the gender scale and .62 on the age scale, denoting a gender neutral behavior and an old age stereotypical behavior. All 243 sentences were tested on both studies, but for the same reason as Study 1 - not strictly meeting both criteria (clearly depicting one behavior or the absence of gendered words) - twenty-six sentences were removed from the tables.

Within this study, a larger sample was tested (64 participants per sentence), and we provided a measure of both age and gender stereotypicality for each behavior, besides mere category membership. For instance both sentences “Played a videogame all day” and “Had dinner at 10pm last weekend” depict behaviors considered young, but the first was considered more stereotypical (-.68) than the latter (-.47). Additionally, with this second study we were also able to address intersectionality by providing both information on age and gender stereotypicality for each sentence. In the examples mentioned above, having dinner at 10pm during the weekend is a gender neutral behavior (.05) but playing a videogame all day is a “man” behavior (.51).

On Study 1, participants were asked to indicate, for a set of behavioral sentences, if they were typical of old, young or both age groups and, for a different set, if they were typical of woman, man or both genders in a 3AFC procedure. This first study provided category membership for a set of behavioral sentences on age and another set on gender, which we ranked by their relative frequencies according to the following criteria: (1) highest relative frequency of a given sub-category; (2) highest relative frequency of “both” (sentences which could belong both to one or the other sub-category); (3) lowest relative frequency of the opposite sub-category. One should notice that, since “both” answers were held into account, a position of a sentence in the “young- old” ranking is not symmetrical to its position in the “old-young” ranking. This means that each sentence has two ranking positions, one for each order of the target sub-categories. The same is true for gender rankings.

On Study 2, participants were asked to rate both age and gender for all behaviors on a sliding scale, from young to old and from woman to man. Besides category membership, this measure provided stereotypicality of each behavior within its category, allowing us to rank the sentences according to the mean ratings from -1 to 1. In this case, considering that the answers were given in a continuum, a position of a sentence in the “young-old” ranking is symmetrical to its position in the “old-young” ranking, being the same true for gender sentences. In order to test stability between studies, we selected the sentences that were rated on age on both studies and correlated their rank positions on Study 1 and Study 2. For both “young-old” [rs(114)=.94, p<.001] and “old-young” [rs(114)=.94, p<.001], rankings are highly correlated. For the sentences rated on gender on both studies, the same results are obtained, for “woman-man” [rs(99)=.92, p<.001] and “man-woman” [rs(99)=.94, p<.001] rankings. Such high correlations indicate stability across measures for age and gender sentences, lending support for the usefulness of our results.

General discussion

Stereotypes are a widely studied phenomenon in Social Psychology and Social Cognition fields. While most studies have resorted to traits to evoke social categories (e.g., ethnicity, gender), behavioral information can also serve that purpose helping to shed light on stereotypes themselves and other phenomena, such as illusory correlations, memory, STI’s, judgement and decision making and prejudice. In this sense, the present work provides a broad list of behavioral sentences tested in European Portuguese that can be used to study several of these domains, quite relevant for Social Psychology and Social Cognition. With Study 1, we created a broad sample of behaviors that could be used to study age or gender stereotypes, demonstrating that behaviors can, indeed, vary in their typicality to the relevant categories. Study 2 focused on some of the limitations of Study 1, such as sample size, and argued for the stability of these judgments. Specifically, sample size increased from 25 to 64 participants per sentence, and the measure for the sentences’ judgement changed from a 3AFC to a bipolar scale, allowing us to access category stereotypicality, rather than just category membership. Results were highly consistent across the two studies, providing support to the robustness of the materials tested.

One concern can be raised regarding the asymmetry in age and gender of both studies’ samples. Because our data was collected with a sample of University (mainly Psychology) students, who are mostly young and female, both ‘young’ and ‘woman’ categories are ingroups to the average participant, and judgments may have been influenced by perceptions of outgroup homogeneity towards the male and old categories (e.g., Judd et al., 1991; Park & Rothbart, 1982). Nevertheless, although group membership may affect the judgments made about others, for instance, by not being equally endorsed to the same extent by all groups, research has shown that stereotypes are often shared across groups, namely, the stereotype is frequently also endorsed by the target group (e.g., Amâncio, 1993; Amâncio & Oliveira, 2006; Sagar & Schofield, 1980; Schein, 1973, 1975). Additionally, Psychology studies often resort to University students as participants, due to the ease of recruitment and logistics, making use of gender-asymmetric samples even within stereotype research (e.g., Garcia-Marques et al., 2006: 56.5 - 71.9% female participants; Lenton et al., 2001: 71.0 - 75.6% female participants; Moreira et al., 2008: 74.6% female participants; Santos et al., 2012: 58.5 - 67.9% female participants). In this sense, our materials can be confidently used in studies that make use of such asymmetric samples.

Beyond statistical concerns, Study 2 also addressed intersectionality issues. As social individuals, we frequently possess multiple group identities (e.g., a black doctor), which can be perceived in very distinct ways, depending on the motivation of the perceiver (Sinclair & Kunda, 1999). A recent study by Palma and colleagues (2019), for example, showed how motivation in a memory task can lead participants to attend to one or another dimension (age and gender), ignoring the irrelevant one (age was ignored when gender was relevant, however the opposite was not found). Besides the selective activation of individual categories, research has demonstrated the relevance of considering the simultaneous activation of multiple categories. For instance, when both age and gender information is present, both interact to inform judgments about others and even the self (Ramos et al., 2016; Sng et al., 2019; specifically in a work place context: Duncan & Loretto, 2004; Tresh et al., 2019). Furthermore, stereotypes often overlap across multiple categories (e.g., Galinsky et al., 2013), which means that a certain trait, behavior, or characteristic may be typical of several different categories. With the material we provide, it is possible to select behaviors highly typical of a gender and an age category simultaneously (e.g., Woman and Old), or highly typical in one category and neutral in the other.

Finally, another strength of the present material is that the sentences do not provide cues (e.g., pronouns) that might suggest gender. This is possible in Portuguese but, despite our attempts, it was not always possible when a translation to English is required. For example, in the sentence “Mudou o óleo do seu carro.”, we considered as an accurate translation “Changed the oil in his/her car”. In Portuguese language, the pronoun - “seu” - is gender neutral, that is, it does not allow the reader to know the subject’s gender. In English, this is not the case. To solve this problem, we sometimes presented a modified translation of such sentences (Changed the oil in the car). The same principles were held in mind for the construction of age sentences.

The data are presented in Appendix 1. In order to make use of it, one can look at the list of sentences, organized by Mean ratings (Study 2). If one would like a selection of behaviors stereotypical of Woman, for example, Appendix 2 can be consulted, and behaviors selected from those whose ‘Gender Mean Rating’ is between -1 and 0. The closer to -1, the higher on the table the sentences will appear, and the more stereotypical of Woman they were considered. For Man, the desired ratings would be between 0 and 1, and these behaviors appear lower on the list. Finally, it should be noted that, although an English translation is available on the appendixes, only the Portuguese version of the sentences was tested.

References

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Perseus Books. [ Links ]

Amâncio, L. (1993). Género - Representações e identidades. Sociologia, Problemas e Práticas, 14, 127-140. [ Links ]

Amâncio, L., & Oliveira, J. M. (2006). Men as individuals, women as a sexed category. Implications of symbolic asymmetry for feminist practice and feminist psychology. Feminism & Psychology, 16(1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959-353506060818 [ Links ]

Asch, S. E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41(3), 258-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0055756 [ Links ]

Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(2), 230-244. [ Links ]

Benrós, M. F., Vaz, A. R., Assunção, H., Santos, A. S., Palma, T. A., & Garcia-Marques, L. (2020). Generation and testing of emergent traits in composite professional stereotypes. Análise Psicológica, 38(1), 87-110. https://doi.org/10.14417/ap.1624 [ Links ]

Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3), 170-180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014564 [ Links ]

Cottrell, C. A., & Neuberg, S. L. (2005). Different emotional reactions to different groups: A sociofunctional threat-based approach to “prejudice”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(5), 770-789. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.5.770 [ Links ]

Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5-18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 [ Links ]

Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(11), 1139-1150. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672952111002 [ Links ]

Duncan, C., & Loretto, W. (2004). Never the right age? Gender and age‐based discrimination in employment. Gender, Work & Organization, 11(1), 95-115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2004.00222.x [ Links ]

Fiske, S. T. (2017). Prejudices in cultural contexts: Shared stereotypes (gender, age) versus variable stereotypes (race, ethnicity, religion). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5), 791-799. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708204 [ Links ]

Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878-902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878 [ Links ]

Galinsky, A. D., Hall, E. V., & Cuddy, A. J. C. (2013). Gendered races: Implications for interracial marriage, leadership selection, and athletic participation. Psychological Science, 24(4), 498-506. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612457783 [ Links ]

Garcia-Marques, L., & Garcia-Marques, T. (2003). Mal pensa quem não repensa: Introdução ao estudo dos estereótipos sociais numa perspectiva cognitiva. In T. Garcia-Marques & L. Garcia-Marques (Eds.), Estereótipos e cognição social (pp. 11-25). ISPA - Instituto Universitário. [ Links ]

Garcia-Marques, L., Santos, A. S. C., & Mackie, D. M. (2006). Stereotypes: Static abstractions or dynamic knowledge structures?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 814-831. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.5.814 [ Links ]

Garcia-Marques, L., Santos, A. S. C., & Almeida, F. (2012). Paradigma subjacente ao estudo das correlações ilusórias na percepção de grupos. Laboratório de Psicologia, 10(2), 163-173. https://doi.org/10.14417/lp.668 [ Links ]

Gilbert, G. M. (1951). Stereotype persistence and change among college students. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46(2), 245-254. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0053696 [ Links ]

Hamilton, D. L., & Gifford, R. K. (1976). Illusory correlation in interpersonal perception: A cognitive basis of stereotypic judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12(4), 392-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(76)80006-6 [ Links ]

Hamilton, D. L., & Rose, T. L. (1980). Illusory correlation and the maintenance of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(5), 832-845. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.832 [ Links ]

Heider, J. D., Scherer, C. R.,Skowronski, J. J., Wood, S. E., Edlund, J. E., & Hartnett, J. L. (2007). Trait expectancies and stereotype expectancies have the same effect on person memory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(2), 265-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.01.004 [ Links ]

Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657-674. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00234 [ Links ]

Jerónimo, R., Garcia-Marques, L., & Garrido, M. (2004). Comportamentos e traços de personalidade: Traços gerados para comportamentos de duas dimensões de personalidade. Laboratório de Psicologia, 2(1), 33-47. https://doi.org/10.14417/lp.776 [ Links ]

Judd, C. M., Ryan, C. S., & Park, B. (1991). Accuracy in the judgment of in-group and out-group variability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(3), 366-379. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.366 [ Links ]

Karlins, M., Coffman, T. L., & Walters, G. (1969). On the fading of social stereotypes: Studies in three generations of college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0027994 [ Links ]

Katz, D., & Braly, K. (1933). Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28(3), 280-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074049 [ Links ]

Katz, D., & Braly, K. W. (1935). Racial prejudice and racial stereotypes. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 30(2), 175-193. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0059800 [ Links ]

Kunda, Z., Miller, D. T., & Claire, T. (1990). Combining social concepts: The role of causal reasoning. Cognitive Science, 14(4), 551-577. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1404_3 [ Links ]

Lenton, A. P., Blair, I. V., & Hastie, R. (2001). Illusions of gender: Stereotypes evoke false memories. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37(1), 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.2000.1426 [ Links ]

Locksley, A., Hepburn, C., & Ortiz, V. (1982). Social stereotypes and judgments of individuals: An instance of the base-rate fallacy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18(1), 23-42. [ Links ]

Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.37 [ Links ]

Moreira, S., Garcia-Marques, L., & Santos, A. S. (2008). Traços estereotípicos associados a 32 grupos profissionais. Laboratório de Psicologia, 6(1), 3-13. https://doi.org/10.14417/lp.690 [ Links ]

Palma, T. A., Garcia-Marques, L., Marques, P., Haga, S., & Payne, B. K. (2019). Learning what to inhibit: The influence of repeated testing on the encoding of gender and age information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 116(6), 899-918. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000162 [ Links ]

Park, B., & Rothbart, M. (1982). Perception of out-group homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(6), 1051-1068. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.6.1051 [ Links ]

Petsko, C. D., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2019). Multifarious person perception: How social perceivers manage the complexity of intersectional targets. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 14(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12518 [ Links ]

Posthuma, R. A., & Campion, M. A. (2009). Age stereotypes in the workplace: Common stereotypes, moderators, and future research directions. Journal of Management, 35(1), 158-188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206308318617 [ Links ]

Ramos, T., & Garcia-Marques, L. (2006). Quando uma acção permite diferentes interpretações: Pré-teste de comportamentos ambíguos. Laboratório de Psicologia, 4(1), 45-63. https://doi.org/10.14417/lp.762 [ Links ]

Ramos, T., Oliveira, M., Santos, A. S., Garcia-Marques, L., & Carneiro, P. (2016). Evaluating young and old faces on social dimensions: Trustworthiness and dominance. Psicológica, 37(2), 169-185. [ Links ]

Ramos, T., Orghian, D., & Garcia-Marques, L. (2012). Inferências espontâneas de traço: Os quatro paradigmas-chave. Laboratório de Psicologia, 10(2), 299-312. https://doi.org/10.14417/lp.677 [ Links ]

Rosenberg, S., & Jones, R. (1972). A method for investigating and representing a person’s implicit theory of personality: Theodore Dreiser’s view of people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22(3), 372-386. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032891 [ Links ]

Rosenberg, S., Nelson, C., & Vivekananthan, P. S. (1968). A multidimensional approach to the structure of personality impressions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9(4), 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026086 [ Links ]

Sagar, H. A., & Schofield, J. W. (1980). Racial and behavioral cues in black and white children’s perceptions of ambiguously aggressive acts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(4), 590-598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.4.590 [ Links ]

Santos, A. S., Almeida, F. D., Palma, T. A., Oliveira, M., & Garcia-Marques, L. (2017). The cultural stereotype of professional groups: Consensus, accessibility and typicality of stereotypic contents. Análise Psicológica, 35(4), 557-568. https://doi.org/10.14417/ap.1385 [ Links ]

Santos, A. S., Garcia-Marques, L., Mackie, D. M., Ferreira, M. B., Payne, B. K., & Moreira, S. (2012). Implicit open-mindedness: Evidence for and limits on stereotype malleability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1257-1266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.013 [ Links ]

Santos, A. S., Garcia-Marques, L., Mackie, D. M., Palma, T. A., Costa, R. S., & de Almeida, F. (2017). Something in the way you primed me: Belief monitoring when source identification is not possible. Social Cognition, 35(3), 273-298. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2017.35.3.273 [ Links ]

Schein, V. E. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57(2), 95-100. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037128 [ Links ]

Schein, V. E. (1975). Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(3), 340-344. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076637 [ Links ]

Seta, C. E., & Hayes, N. (1994). The influence of impression formation goals on the accuracy of social memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(1), 93-101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294201009 [ Links ]

Shenouda, C. K., & Danovitch, J. H. (2014). Effects of gender stereotypes and stereotype threat on children’s performance on a spatial task. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 27(3), 53-77. [ Links ]

Sherman, J. W., Stroessner, S. J., Conrey, F. R., & Azam, O. A. (2005). Prejudice and stereotype maintenance processes: Attention, attribution, and individuation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 607-622. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.607 [ Links ]

Sinclair, L., & Kunda, Z. (1999). Reactions to a black professional: Motivated inhibition and activation of conflicting stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(5), 885-904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.885 [ Links ]

Sng, O., Williams, K. E., & Neuberg, S. L. (2019). Sex-age stereotyping: Social perceivers as lay adaptationists. Evolution and Human Behavior, 41(2), 136-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.12.001 [ Links ]

Todorov, A., & Uleman, J. S. (2004). The person reference process in spontaneous trait inferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(4), 482-493. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.4.482 [ Links ]

Tresh, F., Steeden, B., de Moura, G. R., Leite, A. C., Swift, H. J., & Player, A. (2019). Endorsing and reinforcing gender and age stereotypes: The negative effect on self-rated leadership potential for women and older workers. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(688), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00688 [ Links ]

Uleman, J. S. (1987). Consciousness and control: The case of spontaneous trait inferences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13(3), 337-354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167287133004 [ Links ]

Van der Horst, M. (2019). Internalised ageism and self-exclusion: Does feeling old and health pessimism make individuals want to retire early?. Social Inclusion, 7(3), 27-43. https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v7i3.1865 [ Links ]

Wigboldus, D. H., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2003). When stereotypes get in the way: Stereotypes obstruct stereotype-inconsistent trait inferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(3), 470-484. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.470 [ Links ]

Appendix 1

The online version contains supplementary materials available here.

Appendix 2

The online version contains supplementary materials available here.

Received: March 11, 2020; Accepted: October 05, 2020

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Ana Sofia Santos, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Universidade, 1648-013 Lisboa, Portugal. Email: sosantos@fp.ul.pt

a

b

Creative Commons License This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License