SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online

 
vol.31 número1Vacinação Anti-Sarampo, Parotidite e Rubéola na criança com alergia ao ovoDefeitos congénitos da glicosilação índice de autoresíndice de materiabúsqueda de artículos
Home Pagelista alfabética de revistas  

Servicios Personalizados

Revista

Articulo

Indicadores

Links relacionados

  • No hay articulos similaresSimilares en SciELO

Compartir


Nascer e Crescer

versión impresa ISSN 0872-0754versión On-line ISSN 2183-9417

Nascer e Crescer vol.31 no.1 Porto mar. 2022  Epub 31-Mar-2022

https://doi.org/10.25753/birthgrowthmj.v31.i1.20898 

Review articles

Cross-allergy between penicillins and cephalosporins: a paradigm shift

Reatividade cruzada entre penicilinas e cefalosporinas: mudança de paradigma

Liliana Dias1  , Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Resources, Methodology, Writing - original draft, Writing review & editing
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2285-4333

Cláudia Pedrosa2  , Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing - review & editing
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6543-879X

1. Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Unidade I, Centro Hospitalar Vila Nova Gaia/ Espinho. 4434-502 Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. liliana.pereira.dias@chvng.min-saude.pt

2. Immunoallergology and Pediatric Pulmonology Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Unidade II, Centro Hospitalar Vila Nova de Gaia/Espinho. 4400-129 Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. claudia.pedrosa@chvng.min-saude.pt


Abstract

Allergic reactions to beta-lactam antibiotics are the most common cause of allergic drug reactions. The incorrect diagnosis prevents patients from receiving a highly effective therapy.

The potential cross-reactivity between penicillin and cephalosporin has very significant therapeutic implications. Penicillins and cephalosporins share a common beta-lactam ring and side chains. A number of studies indicate that the R1 side chain, rather than the ring itself, is the determining factor for cross-reactivity.

Herein is presented a review of the immunologic mechanisms implicated in penicillin and cephalosporin cross-reactivity and a practical approach to the use of cephalosporins in patients allergic to penicillin.

Keywords: cephalosporin; cross-reactivity; penicillin; side chain

Resumo

A alergia aos antibióticos beta-lactâmicos é a causa mais frequente de alergia secundária a fármacos. O diagnóstico incorreto impede os doentes de receber uma opção terapêutica altamente efetiva.

A reatividade cruzada entre penicilina e cefalosporina tem importantes implicações terapêuticas. A estrutura das penicilinas e cefalosporinas partilha o anel beta-lactâmico e as cadeias laterais. Vários estudos implicam a cadeia lateral R1 e não o anel beta-lactâmico como fator determinante para a reatividade cruzada.

O presente artigo faz uma revisão dos mecanismos imunológicos envolvidos na reatividade cruzada e apresenta uma abordagem prática ao uso de cefalosporinas em doentes alérgicos a penicilina.

Palavras-chave: cadeia lateral; cefalosporina; penicilina; reatividade cruzada

Introduction

β-lactams (BL) are the first-line therapy for community- and hospital-acquired bacterial infections.1 The vast knowledge of its pharmacokinetics, associated with a broad spectrum of activity and low toxicity, makes them the most used group of antimicrobials.2

The BL family includes penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, monobactams, and beta-lactamase inhibitors. They are the antibiotic class most commonly reported to cause allergic reactions.3 However, after appropriate assessment, more than 90% of subjects reporting allergy can tolerate penicillin.4 This mislabel occurs because most reported reactions can be related to intolerance, benign viral rash, or drug-infection interactions.4

An incorrect penicillin allergy diagnosis excludes a highly effective therapeutic option, with a potential increase of side effects, microbial resistance, and risk of infection recurrence.5,6 Using the tools available for a correct diagnosis allows to safely use these antibiotics.7

Types of hypersensitivity reactions to antibiotics

BL can originate any of the four types of hypersensitivity reactions proposed by Gell and Coombs (Table 1), which account for the most frequent immune-related adverse drugs reactions.8-11

Table 1 Immunologic aspects of hypersensitivity reactions according to Gell and Coombs classification. (Adapted from Regateiro F. and Faria E). 

AGEP, acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis; DILI, drug-induced liver injury; DRESS/DiHS, drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome/drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms; FcR: Fc receptor; GM-CSF, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IFN-g, interferon-gamma; Ig, Immunoglobulin; IL, interleukin; NK, Natural Killer; SSJ, Stevens-Johnson syndrome; TEN, toxic epidermal necrolysis;TNF-a, Tumour necrosis factor alpha;

Immunoglobulin (Ig) E-mediated hypersensitivity reactions (Gell and Coombs type I) generally occur within one hour after drug administration. The drug or drug-protein complex is recognized by IgE antibodies bound to their high-affinity receptor on the surface of mast cells and basophils. Crosslinking of IgE leads to degranulation and release of a variety of pre-formed (histamine, triptase) and newly synthesized (leukotrienes, TNF-) mediators. Mediators are responsible for clinical manifestations, namely cutaneous (itching, hives, angioedema, generalized erythema), respiratory (rhinitis, laryngeal angioedema, wheezing), gastrointestinal (abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), cardiovascular (tachycardia, hypotension), and in most severe cases, anaphylaxis with or without shock.10,12

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are mostly mediated by T cells.10,12 Antibody-mediated reactions (Gell and Coombs types II and III) are uncommon. T-cell-mediated reactions (Gell and Coombs type IV) commonly occur after several days of treatment. The most common manifestations are maculopapular exanthema and delayed urticaria, and the most serious include severe cutaneous adverse reactions (SCAR), such as Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms syndrome, and acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis.10,12,13

Penicillins and cephalosporins: molecular structure

Penicillins and cephalosporins have similarities in their chemical structure.14,15 Both share a common -lactam ring, but penicillins have a 5-membered thiazolidine ring, and cephalosporins a 6-membered dihydrothiazine ring attached to the BL nucleus.16 The type and position of side chains differentiate penicillins and cephalosporins (Figure 1).17

The side chain is an important site of immunological recognition and hence of allergic cross-reactivity.17,18

Penicillins have low molecular weight; hence they must covalently bind to transport macromolecules to form a hapten-carrier complex in order to induce an immune response.12 Under physiological conditions, the penicillin central nucleus spontaneously opens, without defragmenting, binds to transport proteins, and forms the major antigenic determinant (penicilloyl polylysine).18-20

But the major antigenic determinant alone is insufficient to explain all penicillin-specific immune responses.18-20 A small proportion of penicillins (approximately 5%) are metabolized by other paths, and the resulting antigens are known as minor determinants (benzyl penicillin, penicilloate, and peniloate).18,20

Regarding cephalosporins, the process by which a hapten-protein complex is formed is unknown.21,22 Unlike penicillins, the central nucleus is extremely unstable and undergoes rapid fragmentation, resulting in unstable metabolites that do not enable protein haptenization. The haptenic determinants in cephalosporins are thus unknown.16,23

Apart from the central structure, side chains are important inductors of immunologic response.24 The R1 side chain remains intact and is the major responsible for cross-reactivity, while the R2 side chain makes little contribution to cephalosporin hypersensitivity.25

In both compounds, the reactivity of the native molecule must be investigated. However, in the case of penicillins, it is also important to investigate the immunogenicity of major and minor antigenic determinants resulting from their metabolism.26

Figure 1 Molecular structure of penicillins and cephalosporins 

Epidemiology

The most common side effects of BL in children are skin manifestations. Nevertheless, only a small number of these reactions are due to hypersensitivity mechanisms. Other probable causes are the coexistence of viral infections or reactions associated with other non-immunological mechanisms.27,28

The prevalence of self-reported reactions to BL in pediatric age varies from 1.7% to 5.2%,29-31 with amoxicillin (1.4%), other penicillins (1.2%), and cephalosporins (0.7%) being the most implicated drugs.29-31 Although IgE-mediated reactions are not uncommon, anaphylaxis is rare (approximately 0.015─0.004% for penicillins and 0.1─0.0001% for cephalosporins).4,32

Allergy to cephalosporins is generally managed in the context of patients with penicillin allergy.27 A 2012 literature review reported a 2.5% prevalence of cross-reactivity between penicillins and cephalosporins with similar side chains.33

Cross-reactivity

The cross allergy between penicillins and cephalosporins was assigned to the BL ring for decades, whereas side chains were associated with less relevant allergies.16 With the increasing knowledge of their molecular structure and metabolism and absence of cross-reactivity between antibiotics with the same ring, attention for the role of side chains in allergic reactions was raised.22 Nowadays, it is generally accepted that cross-reactivity is primarily determined by the R1 side chain.24,34,35

Regardless of the knowledge about the role of side chains, the risk of cross-reactivity between these agents has been overestimated in older studies. Before 1980, first-generation cephalosporins were produced by chemical modification of the penicillin structure, resulting in high levels of contamination.14 Additionally, some patients treated with penicillin developed IgG and IgM antibodies against cephalosporins with no clinical significance.33,36

Pichichero et al. conducted a metanalysis showing that patients allergic to penicillin had an increased risk of allergic reactions to first-generation cephalosporins, but cross-allergy was negligible with second- and third-generation counterparts.23 A prospective observational study in a pediatric population (n=664) with positive skin test for penicillin revealed cross-reactivity among molecules dependent on cephalosporin generation. A total of 23.9% of the allergic population in this study developed reactions to first- and second-generation cephalosporins, while only 0.3% presented manifestations to third- and fourth-generation molecules.37 In a meta-analysis of articles published between January 1980 and March 2019 estimating the risk of cross-reactivity to cephalosporins in patients with a proven IgE- or T-cell-mediated penicillin allergy, the rate of cross-reactivity varied with the degree of similarity between R1 side chains.38 This set of studies associated differences in cross-reactivity to a higher similarity between R1 side chains of the respective agents.23,37,38

Cross-reactivity between agents whose side chains are similar but not identical is also possible and has been documented, being presumably attributed to similar three-dimensional structure and physicochemical properties.18,24,39 Table 2 depicts the pharmacological groups exhibiting cross-reactivity due to identical and similar side chains, respectively.14,18,27,40

In patients allergic to penicillin, recent studies recommend the use of cephalosporins depending on the development and severity of clinical manifestations (Figure 2).4,11 While the use of first-generation cephalosporins should be avoided in patients allergic to penicillin, the risk of cross-reactivity to third- or fourth-generation cephalosporins is limited.11,27,41

Table 2 Penicillins and cephalosporins with identical or similar side chain (Adapted from Min-Hye Kim et al.) 

G, generation

Figure 2 Clinical recommendations for patients with a history of penicillin allergy4,11. BL, Beta-lactam; DPT, Drug provocation test; HSR, Hypersensitivity reactions; SCAR, Severe cutaneous adverse reaction. 

Diagnosis

The evaluation of patients with antibiotic allergy begins with a careful history, including clinical manifestations, treatment of the allergic reaction, timing of the reaction, and details of the drugs used.42,43

The study should be conducted within a period of at least four to six weeks after the suspected allergic reaction.22 Assessment of IgE-mediated penicillin allergy should start with skin testing.44

For immediate reactions, a skin prick test and intradermal test with immediate reading can be considered.4 Penicillin skin testing is usually performed with major antigenic determinants (penicilloyl polylysine), minor determinant mixture, ampicillin or amoxicillin, and benzylpenicillin.26 Drug tests are compared with positive (histamine) and negative (usually glycerinated saline) controls.4

In patients with a negative penicillin skin test, the absence of immediate allergy should be confirmed by an oral drug provocation test (DPT, also named graded challenge) with the culprit drug.26,42 DPT consists of administering the drug in a graduated manner under close surveillance. The starting dose is usually 1/100 or 1/10 of the single therapeutic dose,43 after which the patient is observed for at least 30─60 minutes. If no adverse reaction is observed, increasing doses are administered until the full therapeutic dose.4,22,43

Skin test and DPT together have a negative predictive value for excluding IgE-mediated penicillin allergy of more than 99%.44

Patients with a history of severe allergic reactions, positive penicillin skin test, or DPT may cross-react with cephalosporin. Due to structural and molecular differences in these drug classes, skin test to penicillin does not predict cephalosporin allergy. Nonetheless, if the cephalosporin has a similar side chain, skin test may have diagnostic value.20,45 Therefore, some clinicians additionally perform skin test using a cephalosporin with a different side chain.44 Patients with negative cephalosporin skin test can perform a cephalosporin graded challenge.22

Testing for non-immediate reactions is not standard. Delayed intradermal or patch test reading can be used but is associated with low sensitivity and poor negative predictive value.43 If negative, DPT can be considered for non-SCAR T-cell-mediated hypersensitivity. In delayed reactions, DPT can be continuously used, being contraindicated for severe T-cell-mediated reactions.11,44

Conclusion

BL represent the first-line treatment of several bacterial infections and are the most frequent cause of hypersensitivity drug reactions.1 Clinical manifestations are heterogeneous, ranging from mild to severe and from immediate to delayed.10,12

When investigating the potential for cross-reactivity, the drugs’ molecular structure and metabolism under physiological conditions should be considered. The current evidence indicates that similarity between R1 side chains is the main cross-reactivity inducer, advising against the use of first-generation cephalosporins with similar side chains in patients with a history of allergic reaction to penicillin. Limited cross-reactivity is reported to third- or fourth-generation cephalosporins.

References

1. Hermanides J, Lemkes BA, Prins JM, Hollmann MW, Terreehorst I. Presumed ß-lactam allergy and cross-reactivity in the operating theater: A practical approach. Anesthesiology. 2018;129(2):335-42. [ Links ]

2. Shenoy ES, Macy E, Rowe T, Blumenthal KG. Evaluation and management of penicillin allergy: A review. JAMA 2019; 321(2): 188-99. [ Links ]

3. Bush K, Bradford PA. ?-lactams and ß-lactamase inhibitors: An overview. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine. 2016;6(8): a025247. [ Links ]

4. Blumenthal KG, Peter JG, Trubiano JA, Phillips EJ. Antibiotic allergy. The Lancet. 2019;393(10167):183-98. [ Links ]

5. Yates AB. Management of patients with a history of allergy to beta-lactam antibiotics. The American Journal of Medicine 2008; 121(7):572-6. [ Links ]

6. Sade K, Holtzer I, Levo Y, Kivity S. The economic burden of antibiotic treatment of penicillin-allergic patients in internal medicine wards of a general tertiary care hospital. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 2003; 33(4):501-6. [ Links ]

7. Macy E, Blumenthal KG. Are cephalosporins safe for use in penicillin allergy without prior allergy evaluation?. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice 2018; 6(1):82-9. [ Links ]

8. Coombs PR, Gell PG. Classification of Allergic Reactions Responsible for Clinical Hypersensitivity and Disease. Clinical Aspects of Immunology, Oxford University Press 1968;575-96. [ Links ]

9. Torres MJ, Blanca M, Fernandez J, Romano A, Weck A, Aberer W, et al. Diagnosis of immediate allergic reactions to beta-lactam antibiotics. Allergy 2003; 58(10):961-72. [ Links ]

10. Regateiro F, Faria E. Mecanismos imunopatológicos das reações de hipersensibilidade a fármacos. Revista Portuguesa Imunoalergologia 2016;24(2): 63-78. [ Links ]

11. Blumenthal KG, Shenoy ES, Wolfson AR, Berkowitz DN, Carballo VA, Balekian DS, et al. Addressing inpatient beta-lactam allergies: A multi-hospital implementation. The journal of allergy and clinical immunology: In practice 2017; 5(3):616-25. [ Links ]

12. Oliver Hausmann, Drug Allergy. Middleton's allergy essentials. 1st ed. Elsevier Health Sciences 2017; 225-46. [ Links ]

13. Caruso C, Valluzzi RL, Colantuono S, Gaeta F, Romano A. ?-lactam allergy and cross-reactivity: A clinician's guide to selecting an alternative antibiotic. JAA. 2021; 14(31):31-46. [ Links ]

14. Barber MS, Giesecke U, Reichert A, Minas W. Industrial enzymatic production of cephalosporin-based beta-lactams. Advances in biochemical engineering, biotechnology 2004; 88:179-15. [ Links ]

15. Girard JP. Common antigenic determinants of penicillin G, ampicillin and the cephalosporins demonstrated in men. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology 1968; 33(5):428-38. [ Links ]

16. Pichichero ME. Use of selected cephalosporins in penicillin-allergic patients: A paradigm shift. Diagnostic Microbiology & Infectious Disease 2007; 57(3):S13-S18. [ Links ]

17. Romano A, Gaeta F, Poves M, Valluzzi R. Cross-reactivity among beta-lactams. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports 2016; 16(3): 1-12. [ Links ]

18. Pichichero ME, Zagursky R. Penicillin and cephalosporin allergy. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology 2014; 112(5): 404-12. [ Links ]

19. Khan F, Weiss M. Skin testing for beta-lactam antibiotics: Impact of the availability of a major determinant. Current Allergy Asthma Reports 2013; 13(1): 64-70. [ Links ]

20. Rosário NA, Grumach AS. Allergy to beta-lactams in pediatrics: A practical approach. Jornal de pediatria 2006; 82(5 Suppl):S181. [ Links ]

21. Blanca M, Romano A, Torres MJ, Férnandez J, Mayorga C, Rodriguez J, et al. Update on the evaluation of hypersensitivity reactions to betalactams. Allergy. 2009;64(2):183-93. [ Links ]

22. Lee QU. Use of cephalosporins in patients with immediate penicillin hypersensitivity: Cross-reactivity revisited. Hong Kong medical journal 2014; 20(5):428-36. [ Links ]

23. Pichichero ME, Casey JR. Safe use of selected cephalosporins in penicillin-allergic patients: A meta-analysis. Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery 2007; 136(3):340-7. [ Links ]

24. Zagursky RJ, Pichichero ME. Cross-reactivity in ß-lactam allergy. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice 2018; 6(1):72-81. [ Links ]

25. Blanca M, Romano A, Torres MJ, Fernandez J, Mayorga C, Rodriguez J, et al. Update on the evaluation of hypersensitivity reactions to betalactams. Allergy. 2009;64(2):183-93. [ Links ]

26. Mirakian R, Ewan PW, Durham SR, Youlten LJ, Dugué P, Friedmann PS, et al. BSACI guidelines for the management of drug allergy. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 2009; 39(1):43-61. [ Links ]

27. Pichichero ME. A review of evidence supporting the american academy of pediatrics recommendation for prescribing cephalosporin antibiotics for penicillin-allergic patients. Pediatrics 2005; 115(4):1048-57. [ Links ]

28. Caubet J, Kaiser L, Lemaître B, Fellay B, Gervaix A, Eigenmann PA. The role of penicillin in benign skin rashes in childhood: A prospective study based on drug rechallenge. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2010; 127(1):218-22. [ Links ]

29. Orhan F, Karakas T, Cakir M, Akkol N, Bahat E, Mujgan F, et al. Parental-reported drug allergy in 6- to 9-yr-old urban schoolchildren. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology 2008; 19(1):82-5. [ Links ]

30. Lange L, Koningsbruggen SV, Rietschel E. Questionnaire-based survey of lifetime-prevalence and character of allergic drug reactions in german children. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology 2008; 19(7):634-8. [ Links ]

31. Rebelo GE, Fonseca J, Araujo L, Demoly P. Drug allergy claims in children: From self-reporting to confirmed diagnosis. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 2008; 38(1):191-8. [ Links ]

32. Lee P, Shanson D. Results of a UK survey of fatal anaphylaxis after oral amoxicillin. Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy. 2007;60(5):1172-3. [ Links ]

33. Campagna JD, Bond MC, Schabelman E, Hayes BD. The use of cephalosporins in penicillin-allergic patients: A Literature review. Journal of Emergency Medicine 2012; 42(5):612-20. [ Links ]

34. Blanca M, Romano A, Torres MJ, Férnandez J, Mayorga C, Rodriguez J, et al. Update on the evaluation of hypersensitivity reactions to betalactams. Allergy 2009; 64(2):183-93. [ Links ]

35. Miranda A, Blanca M, Vega JM, Segurado E, Justicia JL, Juarez C. Cross-reactivity between a penicillin and a cephalosporin with the same side chain. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 1996; 98(3):671-7. [ Links ]

36. Levine BB, Fellner MJ, Levytska V, Franklin EC, Alisberg N. Benzylpenicilloyl-specific serum antibodies to penicillin in man. II. sensitivity of the hemagglutination assay method, molecular classes of the antibodies detected, and antibody titers of randomly selected patients. The Journal of immunology 1966; 96(4): 719. [ Links ]

37. Atanaskovic-Markovic M, Velickovic TC, Gavrovic-Jankulovic M, Vuckovic O, Nestorovic B. Immediate allergic reactions to cephalosporins and penicillins and their cross-reactivity in children. Pediatric allergy and immunology. 2005;16(4):341-7. [ Links ]

38. Picard M, Robitaille G, Karam F. Cross-reactivity to cephalosporins and carbapenems in penicillin-allergic patients: Two systematic reviews and meta-analyses. The journal of allergy and clinical immunology in practice. 2019;7(8):2722-38. [ Links ]

39. Farinha S, Cardoso B, Tomaz E, Inácio F. Profiles of sensitization to cephalosporins in clinical practice. Revista Portuguesa Imunoalergologia 2018; 26(4): 263-71. [ Links ]

40. Kim M, Lee J. Diagnosis and management of immediate hypersensitivity reactions to cephalosporins. Allergy, asthma & immunology research. 2014; 6(6): 485-95. [ Links ]

41. Infarmed. Boletim de fármaco-vigilância. Novos Cadernos NAEA 2010; 14(1): 4. [ Links ]

42. Mirakian R, Leech SC, Krishna MT, Richter AG, Huber PA, Farooque S, et al. Management of allergy to penicillins and other beta-lactams. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 2015; 45(2): 300-27. [ Links ]

43. Blanca LN, Atanaskovic MM, Gomes ER, Kidon M, Kuyucu S, Mori F, et al. An EAACI task force report on allergy to beta-lactams in children: Clinical entities and diagnostic procedures. Pediatric allergy and immunology. 2021;32(7):1426-36. [ Links ]

44. Joint Task Force on Practice Parameter, American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology and American College of Allergy Asthma and Immunology. Drug allergy: an updated practice parameter. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2010; 105: 259-73. [ Links ]

45. Félix MM, Kuschnir FC. Penicillin allergy: current aspects. Adolescência e Saúde 2011; 8(3): 43-53. [ Links ]

Received: November 26, 2020; Accepted: January 20, 2022

Correspondence to Liliana Dias Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology Unidade I Centro Hospitalar Vila Nova Gaia/ Espinho Rua Conceição Fernandes 4434-502 Vila Nova de Gaia Email: liliana.pereira.dias@chvng.min-saude.pt

Creative Commons License This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License