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1. Introduction
Since the tourism sector is service-oriented with continuous and long working hours, it is inevitable for its employees to experience some form of stress, the sources of which can be environmental, psychological, or sometimes work-oriented. There are behavioural patterns within the organisation that can cause employee stress. For example, psychological harassment mostly comes from the superiors or unit supervisors. The fact that the rate of such incidents has increased by 57% in the EU countries and 83% in the UK Since 2000 reveals the necessity to examine the behaviour of those in leading positions (Glina, 2017; Jung & Yoon, 2019; Namie, 2003; Vandekerckhove & Commers, 2003).
The tendency for negative behaviour patterns within the organisation linked to organisational factors such as leadership, stressful workplace environment, and corporate hierarchical structure is of great interest. Especially, many researchers of North European origin (Einarsen, Rakness & Matthiesen, 1994; Faupel and Süb, 2019; Pinck and Sonnentag, 2018; Vartia, 1996; Vullinghs, De Hoogh, Hartog and Boon., 2020; Wang, Zheng and Zhu, 2018), have reached statistically significant results linking psychological harassment-based negative behaviour patterns with organisational issues facing the staff. The researchers, who attach a special value to the leadership factor, argue that excessive or weak authoritarian leadership creates an organisational climate based on negative behaviour (Einarsen et al., 1994Vartia; 1996). From this point of view, it becomes necessary to investigate how leaders influence the perceptions of silence, cynicism and psychological well-being that are important for organisational sustainability, improving occupational health and safety, and promoting a peaceful environment and a sense of commitment.
Leadership, organisational silence, organisational cynicism and state of psychological well-being are currently among the ubiquitous concepts in organisations. These are vital for both the organisations and the individuals alike. In the literature, there are numerous studies on the stated variables in tourism, but few of these variables have so far been studied simultaneously but in this study, variables are considered holistically to make a contribution to the field. Additionally, covering Turkey and Italy as a manifestation of related intercultural dimensions, along with analysing the relationship between multidimensional variables from this novel perspective, further enhances the uniqueness of this study. Accordingly, the findings reveal that the leadership behaviours adopted by the executives in the organisations effectively eliminate or reduce the negative behaviours demonstrated by the staff in the organisation, thus, serving as an important practical guide for the sector. A conceptual model is illustrated in Figure 1.
2. Conceptual Framework and Research Model
Organisational silence ensued by organisational cynicism and an altered state of psychological well-being due to the failure of managers to manifest ideal leadership behaviours are known to trigger undesired outcomes in any given establishment. Hence, managers are expected to assume appropriate leadership behaviours and to interact with employees in that manner. In doing so, they should prioritise employee satisfaction and let the personnel feel indispensable to the livelihood of their organisation. In sum, the former plays a vital role in promoting the behaviours of her/his followers and must be aware of her/his ethical and moral responsibilities (Brownell, 2010; Tang, Cai, Liu, Zhu, Yang & Li, 2015). This is because an employee who feels slighted by the leader, who cannot receive feedback on her/his performance no matter how hard s/he works, and who simply feels like a tool in completing the tasks as required would then be overwhelmed with work dissatisfaction; thereby, considered of no use for the organisation and its sustainability. On that account, the sole hope of any employer who aims to make her/his organisation effective and productive, to have a word in the competitive market, and to ensure long years of sustainability lies in assigning effective management equipped with leadership qualities within the organisation (Hinkin & Schriesheim, 2004). Although there are many leadership theories and forms as suggested in the literature, examining the subject in terms of transactional and transformational leadership styles is the focus of this study, believing that it would provide concrete and up-to-date benefits to both the literature and practitioners actors, and entities.
Transformational leadership is defined as a theory of power and influence, where the leader acts mutually with the staff following her/him (Chianga & Lin, 2016; Mittal & Dhar, 2016; Wong & Lee, 2012). This leadership style not only addresses the needs of the staff but also inspires and motivates them to move toward a specific goal. Most of the studies in the field show that this leadership model creates positive perceptions such as organisational commitment and job satisfaction, motivation, and performance while eliminating turnover intention, organisational silence, and cynicism (Buil, Martínez & Matute, 2019; Chen & Wu, 2020; Ohunakin, Adeniji, Oludayo, Osibanjo & Oduyoye, 2019; Urgan & Sevim, 2019; Wang, Tsai & Tsai, 2014).
Transactional leadership is generally thought to have a more negative effect on the personnel in an organisation than transformational leadership, as the former conveys certain behaviour styles that can be regarded based on a regular, mandatory, or strict discipline (Chaudhry & Javed, 2012; Nazim, 2016; Woods, 2019). On the contrary, transformational leadership is seen to have a more positive effect on staff by accommodating their needs and concerns in full (Buil et al., 2019; Chen & Wu, 2020; Mishra, Mishra & Singh, 2019; Naderi, Vosta, Ebrahimi & Jalilvand, 2019; Ohunakin et al., 2019; Patiar & Wang, 2020; Wang et al., 2014).
Researching these two leadership models in view of their positive and negative aspects is believed to offer suggestions to managers in the sector. In particular, this is based on the fact that the transactional leadership approach may have a positive effect in some areas (Hansen & Pihl-Thingvad, 2019; Jensen, Bøllingtoft, Holten & Westergård-Nielsen, 2020; Patiar & Wang, 2020; Saeed & Mughal, 2019) by revealing how different effects on cultures can be observed in the tourism sector, one in which the staff is at the forefront.
Izgar (2008) argues that an individual who has no work satisfaction experiences negative emotions which could, in effect, adversely impact her/his physical, mental and social life. Then, the person could go through difficulties in adapting to the existing conditions. As a result of this adaptation problem, one could be disassociated with the work, quit and become disinterested in the tasks and forge unpromising expectations about the future of her/his term of service. Once these symptoms are analysed from an administrative viewpoint without considering the psychological and social grounds, negative leadership behaviours could lead to organisational silence, organisational cynicism and diminished psychological well-being, thus preventing effective organisational structuring and leading to behaviours and attitudes impinging on productivity badly (Stanley, Meyer & Topolnytsky, 2005).
For an organisation, non-functional behavioural models are considered to be barriers against organisational structuring; hence, it is essential to analyse leadership-based issues in particular. Organisational silence, which is more striking among most of the other non-functional behaviours and which is pervasive in most organisations, has been defined as such: although employees have the power to express and solve the problems in their organisation, they intentionally choose to hide their real thoughts and feelings (Knoll & van Dick, 2013; Zhang, Xu, Zhang, & Liu, 2018). Fear of an employee to face isolation because of explicitly stating her/his thoughts, avoiding any disagreement with colleagues and managers, and other reasons may trigger silence. Based on this perspective, which also has a conceptual background, the hypothesis below has been proposed:
H1: There is a significant relationship between leadership behaviours and the organisational-silence perception of the personnel employed in a hospitality establishment.
H1a: There is a significant relationship between transactional leadership behaviours and the organisational-silence perception of the personnel employed in a hospitality establishment.
H1b: There is a significant relationship between transformational leadership behaviours and the organisational-silence perception of the personnel employed in a hospitality establishment.
Organisational silence relates to the submissiveness of employees to all orders because of fearing job loss (Morrison & Milliken, 2004; Piderit & Ashford, 2003; Vakola & Bouradas, 2005) would, in due course, force them to exhibit negative attitudes and behaviours toward their organisation. In turn, the disillusionment, hopelessness, and negative emotions that employees experience in their organisations would be embodied in the emergent cynicism concept (Evans, Goodman, & Davis, 2011; Kannan-Narasimhan & Lawrence, 2012; Liu, Wu & Ma, 2009; Naus, Van Iterson, Roe, 2007; Zhang et al., 2018). Such cynicism, which the studies show, could adversely affect the state of psychological well-being that symbolises identity perception created in the individual, good relations formed with others, ambient authority, positive emotions experienced regarding life's meaning, and success in being accepted by others (Keyes, Shmotkin & Ryff, 2002; Ryff, 1989). The said concept, directly related to an individual's state of psychological well-being, does not merely refer to an absence of depressive emotions in an individual or absence of symptoms of worry, anxiety, and depression; it also means maintaining good relations with others in the organisation, expressing oneself well, and having positive emotional health that can surface when s/he is appreciated (Deng, Zhao, Lio, Ma, Liang, L & Feng, 2020; Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff, 1995). Hence the following hypotheses have been put forth.
H2: There is a significant relationship between organisational silence and organisational cynicism in a hospitality establishment.
H3: There is a significant relationship between organisational cynicism in an establishment and psychological well-being state of the personnel employed in a hospitality establishment.
The most noticeable feature of the above-stated concepts in leadership - organisational silence, organisational cynicism, and psychological well-being is that they tend to be followers and triggers of one another. One of these behaviours/attitudes expressed by an employee may become the precursor for such behaviours/attitudes in another person, and an individual's tendency to display such symptoms may also lead to negative outcomes for the organisation. All in all, it can be claimed that the person responsible for minimising such behaviours and attitudes in any organisation is the manager who holds the leading role in modelling attitude and behaviour norms among the employees. In light of the literature void and the hypothesis suggested above, a hypothetical model is provided in Figure 1 to materialise the objective of the present research on demonstrating the relationship between leaders and staff by including all the relevant variables.
Since the study conveys an intercultural model, the hypotheses pertaining to the differences to be observed comparatively between Italy and Turkey in the light of the variables are, hence, as follows:
H4: There is a significant difference between countries (Italy /Turkey) in terms of hospitality employees and their leadership perceptions.
H5: There is a significant difference between employed countries (Italy /Turkey) in terms of hospitality employees and their organisational silence perceptions.
H6: There is a significant difference between countries (Italy /Turkey) in terms of hospitality employees and their organisational cynicism perceptions.
H7: There is a significant difference between countries (Italy /Turkey) in terms of hospitality employees and their psychological well-being perceptions.
Employees' psychological well-being has a significant direct or indirect effect on organisational performance and well-being. However, previous studies on leadership have not given enough attention to the theoretical or empirical analysis of employee psychological well-being (Hannah, Perez and Lester, 2020). Researchers have generally focused on subjective well-being, such as job satisfaction. This study will bring a deeper understanding of how psychological well-being is different from subjective well-being, what constitutes psychological well-being in the workplace (leadership, cynicism, silence) and how it occurs. It is necessary to integrate psychological well-being with transactional and transformational leadership theories in order to recommend leadership interventions for managers to support psychological well-being. It is essential that the components of cynicism and silence, which affect psychological well-being and are assumed to be primarily shaped by leader behaviours, can be associated with important organisational outcomes such as poor performance and continuity.
3. Methods
3.1 Data and Sample
An important point to consider is the reason for which the study was designed to cover two different countries. It is seen in the literature that a comparison of two different cultures in terms of tourist behaviour has already been addressed. Accommodation businesses are a labour-intensive and human-focused area, and the impact of human behaviour and results differs from other businesses that produce goods. Since the research is behaviour-oriented, it is thought that the reflections of this behaviour will have more positive or negative effects on the employee and then on the customer. For this reason, it is thought that conducting the study on service businesses will reveal more precise and faster results in terms of organisational continuity and success. As a result, it is important to scrutinise service businesses in order to reach propositions that will allow stakeholders to act more urgently. Therefore, it is interesting to investigate whether cultural differences exist in organisational behaviour literature. Hence, the sample here comprises four- and five-star hotel employees in Antalya (Turkey) and the Amalfi Coast (Italy) region. This selection is because both regions have high tourist attractions and harbours in the Mediterranean.
During the summer season, the study was conducted at central hospitality establishments in Sorento, Capri, Salerno, Positano in Amalfi Coast (Italy) and Antalya centre, Kemer, Belek, Side and Alanya (Turkey). The participants were informed that the survey had academic research motives; that their responses and personal information would be kept absolutely confidential. The distributed surveys were completed in due time by the participants. In Antalya, 718 employees were selected for sampling, and in Amalfi Coast, 357; out of the 1250 questionnaires, 1075 were deemed fit for analysis. The surveys were carried out by the researchers themselves at the locations. In relational tests, without making a distinction based on interculturality, a total of 1075 questionnaires were analysed.
3.2 Measures and Analyses
Two different versions, Turkish and Italian, were developed of the questionnaires, and the scales were translated from English by language experts, revised, and finalised. The timing of the application was simultaneous in both countries.
The questionnaire consists of five parts; The first part includes general information about the demographic and business life of the participants; the second part, leadership; the third part, organisational silence; the fourth part, cynicism; and, finally, the fifth part, psychological well-being. A Likert scale is applied (1 = I strongly disagree 5 = I strongly agree). More details on this appear in the appendix.
In this study, the "Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire-MLQ" developed by Bass & Avolio (1994) is adopted based on a 9-dimensional scale consisting 39 proposals to determine leadership behaviour. Next, the "Organisational Silence Scale" developed by Çakıcı & Çakıcı in 2007 is adopted as a 5-dimensional scale composed of 28 questions. The "Organisational Cynicism Scale (PSS)" was developed by Brandes et al. (1999) and employed as a one-dimensional scale with 13 questions. Lastly, the "Psychological Well-Being Scale" is Adapted from Diener et al. (2010) "New Measures of Well-Being" as a one-dimensional scale with ten questions.
3.3 Validity and Reliability
The Alpha coefficient was obtained in order to test the reliability of all the scales listed earlier. To test the 1075-participant sample data fitness for factor analysis, its KMO (Kaiser Meyer Olkin) value was measured (Table 1).
Table 1 Validity and Reliability Analysis Results
| Measure | Alpha (α=) | Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin |
|---|---|---|
| Transactional Leadership | 0.866 | 0,873 |
| Transformational Leadership | 0.960 | 0,965 |
| Organisational Silence | 0.973 | 0,973 |
| Organisational Cynicism | 0.961 | 0,952 |
| Psychological Well-being | 0.932 | 0,937 |
The questionnaire showed comparatively higher reliability and validity based on the Cronbach's alpha coefficient and KMO (Kaiser Meyer Olkin) values. The collected data were thus found to be useful for further analyses. As for the validity, it was found within the acceptable range, which indicates high construct validity. The data structure was considered good enough for confirmatory factor analyses (Çokluk, 2010; Kaiser, 1974; Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
Factor analyses revealed the items to have relatively high variances, and at the end of the total variance analysis, four factors were proposed for transactional leadership and five for transformational leadership. In the analysis, the contribution of these sets of factors to the variance is, respectively, 70.848%-75.652%. Lastly, as suggested by total variance, the items were grouped under four distinctive dimensions for transactional leadership and five distinctive factors for transformational leadership.
Since in analysing organisational cynicism and psychological well-being, the factor number of the scales is taken as one, in single-factor models, 30%-and-higher rates of explained variance is deemed to be fit for analysis (Çokluk, 2010; Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Kaiser, 1974). In that sense, the contribution of organisational cynicism (68.033%) and psychological well-being (62.298%) to the total variance is sufficient. When the items are examined on the basis of factor load values, and the load values' acceptance level is taken as 0.32, there was one statement which failed to meet this acceptance level. Therefore, this particular factor analysis for the proposed four scales (transactional leadership, transformational leadership, organisational cynicism, and psychological well-being) decided not to exclude any items.
In the Organisational Silence Scale, it was seen that item variances were high, and, to conduct factor analysis, five factors were proposed. In the analysis, the contribution of the five factors to the variance was 76.601%, and items 10, 11 and 12 were seen to provide higher values than the acceptance level (0.32) in more than one factor. In the case of two factors, the difference between the obtained load values was below 0.1. Yet, the 1st and 2nd items were not presented in their respective groups; hence, the removal of items 1, 2, 10, 11, and 12. from the scale. Consequently, when the rotated components matrix was examined, five factors explained 78,994% of the variance. Within this framework, the contribution of one explained factor to the total variance can be deemed sufficient.
3.4 Analytic Strategy
This study was formed on the basis of relational hypotheses constituting the research variables (see Figure 1). In detecting the presence and direction of relationship(s) among the variables, a correlation analysis was carried out as a relational test (Sincich,1996). Additionally, statistical tests (t-test) were performed to meet one of the objectives of the research: to detect if an intercultural difference existed among the said variables (Sincich,1996). In addition, a confirmatory factor analysis was done (Muthén & Muthén, 2012), along with a reliability test and descriptive statistical analysis using SPSS16.0.
3.5 Findings
A correlation analysis was used as a relational test to detect the presence and direction of the relationships among the variables.
The correlation table (Table 2) and correlation model (Figure 2) showing the analysis of the study's relational tests are given below with their explanations.
Table 2 Bivariate Correlations Among Variables (n= 1075)
| Transactional Leadership | Transformational Leadership | Organisational Silence | Organisational Cynicism | Psychological Well- being | |
| Transactional Leadership | 1 | ||||
| Transformational Leadership | -,530** | 1 | |||
| Organisational Silence | ,330** | -,157** | 1 | ||
| Organisational Cynicism | ,325** | ,016 | ,764** | 1 | |
| Psychological Well- being | -,308** | ,422** | -,001 | -,096 | 1 |
According to the findings of the research (showing in a model the relationship between the responses of the personnel employed in the hospitality establishments and the variables), there is a weak and linear relationship between transactional leadership and organisational silence (path= .330**, p<0,01), but a reverse and weak relationship between transformational leadership and organisational silence (path= -.157, p<0,01); thus, supporting H1. There is a mid-level and linear relationship between organisational silence and organisational cynicism (path=.764, p<0.01, supporting H2, and a reverse and weak relationship between organisational cynicism and psychological well-being (path= (-.096**, p<0,01), supporting H3.
In order to test if a cultural difference existed between the said variables, a t-test was used. According to the results, statistical differences emerged among the other (leadership, organisational silence, organisational cynicism, psychological well-being) variables, except for organisational silence (Table 3).
An independent sampling t-test was conducted to unveil if a difference existed between the perceptions in the two countries in terms of transactional leadership (t=127.2, p <0.05; Italy: 2.76 Turkey 2.63) and transformational leadership (t=18.03, p <0.05; Italy 3.62, Turkey 3.71), there exists a statistically significant difference between countries; thus, supporting H4. As seen in Table 3, concerning the other variables, for organisational cynicism (t=15.46, p <0.05; Italy 3.35, Turkey 2.87), H6 is supported, and for psychological well-being, (t=4.63, p <0.05; Italy 3.70 Turkey 4,12) H7 is supported as well.
Table 3 Italy-Turkey Independent Sampling t-test
| Country | N |
|
SS | Test | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transactional Leadership | |||||
| Italy | 357 | 2, 76 | 0, 52 | 127.2 | 0.001 |
| Turkey | 718 | 2, 63 | 0, 84 | ||
| Transformational Leadership | 18.03 | 0.001 | |||
| Italy | 357 | 3, 62 | 0, 82 | ||
| Turkey | 718 | 3, 71 | 0, 96 | ||
| Organisational Cynicism | 15.46 | 0.001 | |||
| Italy | 357 | 3, 35 | 1, 02 | ||
| Turkey | 718 | 2, 87 | 1, 19 | ||
| Psychological Well-being | 4, 63 | 0.032 | |||
| Italy | 357 | 3, 70 | 0, 89 | ||
| Turkey | 718 | 4, 12 | 0, 97 |
4. Results
According to the independent sampling t-test to reveal if a cultural difference existed between the stated variables in the research in the case of the two countries, there were significant differences in terms of transactional leadership, transformational leadership, organisational cynicism and psychological well-being perceptions. The results showed that the only variable that did not significantly differ in this context was organisational silence, hence refuting H5.
Likewise, with respect to transactional and transformational leadership perception, the employee in Italy, in comparison to their counterparts in Turkey, had higher levels of transactional leadership perception, confirming H4.
According to the intercultural analysis on transformational leadership, a less frequently observed transformational leadership style in Italy is seen to be much more commonly displayed in Turkey. Based on the research hypotheses, it can be argued that managers who act as leaders more widely adopt a transactional leadership style in Italian hospitality organisations, whilst in Turkey, managers mostly favour a transformational one.
According to the comparison between the two countries' organisational cynicism perceptions, the respective mean ratio in Italy is (3.35), higher than that of Turkey (2.87). Therefore, it is safe to argue that, as regards the organisational cynicism variable, Italy is more cynical than Turkey, thus, supporting H6.
The mean value of Turkey's psychological well-being (4, 12) is above Italy's psychological well-being mean value (3, 70), implying that compared to Italy, those employed in the hospitality organisations in Turkey maintain a better psychological well-being status; thereby, supporting H7.
In addition, the research model established on the effects of transactional and transformational leadership behaviours displayed by tourism-sector managers on the variables of organisational cynicism, organisational silence and psychological well-being provided different findings upon data analysis. The most important finding of this study is that, contrary to the expectation of a linear model among variables, a cyclical model was revealed (Figure 3).
The cyclical model determines that transactional and transformational leadership styles adopted by managers could affect silence, cynicism, and psychological well-being among the employees. The latter variable potentially affects the managers' choice of leadership style. All in all, the staff's psychological well-being state can be considered an indicator of the type of leader a manager could be in the future.
Concerning the staff experiencing negative psychological well-being, no matter how many positive features the manager might have, they would likely view such a manager as one manifesting negative leadership behaviours. On the other hand, positive psychological well-being, no matter how many negative features the manager can have, would likely encourage the staff to view her/him as someone manifesting positive leadership behaviours and a leader that is a good match for the organisation. It can be seen at this point that an employee with positive psychological well-being tends to define her/his leader as a transformational one, while an employee with negative well-being tends to define the leader as a transactional one. In all, the state of psychological well-being of staff is a crucial variable in assessing the managing style of superiors. However, because each organisation has its unique culture and structure, one cannot advocate promoting only one leadership style. This study merely includes the comparison of variables in tandem with transactional and transformational leadership.
5. Discussion and Conclusions
The study's main purpose is to reveal the relationship and direction between transactional and transformational leadership, organisational silence, organisational cynicism, and psychological well-being. This study examined comparatively data dealing with two societies with different characteristics, such as the leadership style adopted by the managers of hotel businesses and the attitudes of the personnel towards their organisations. In this cross-cultural study, it was revealed that there was a statistical difference in all other variables except organisational silence. In the light of all these findings, suggestions that can have theoretical and practical value for both researchers and practitioners are presented.
In Wilson and Small's (2013) study, where tourism students were considered tourism leaders of the future, transformational leadership was termed a critical leadership style to be integrated into school curricula as it could provide a favourable model for positive outcomes. Based on this insight, it is suggested to integrate novel leadership concepts that are different from previous teachings and familiar norms into the leadership curricula of respective schools and training programmes. By developing the leadership concept in education, students could have an innovative mindset in every aspect and use various opportunities to develop diverse leadership-related concepts.
Next, although many literary sources aim to satisfy curiosity on the issue, there are no studies dealing with the five variables. Since the leadership, organisational silence, organisational cynicism, and psychological well-being concepts analysed here follow each other upon the emergence of one in an organisation, it is believed that focusing more on conducting relevant studies and adding new dimensions to the topic by drawing an inter-comparison among these studies would significantly advance the existing literature.
Lastly, the psychological well-being analysis within the scope of the present work was done by focusing on the results of the work-life data in general. Therefore, future studies may also focus on the effects of family and social life outcomes on this variable.
In addition to the theoretical contributions of the study, it is thought that it also has practical contributions to practitioners. First of all, once a manager fails to effectively employ her/his leadership quality to serve in favour of the employees, it is inevitable that organisational silence, organisational cynicism, and psychological well-being concepts could adversely emerge. Thus, it can be assumed that these variables are of critical value for hospitality organisations. It is considered that this study could offer a roadmap for a managerial level of organisations that aim to eliminate organisational silence and cynicism and support the positive psychological well-being of the employees by manifesting positive leadership behaviours. In this sense, the present work may also serve as a practice-based guide to highlight the leadership behaviour styles required to achieve the aims above.
Almost all establishments included in the research are classified as independent hotels, limiting the findings. However, it is suggested to generalise the findings by implementing the variables to those employed in chain hotels in the following studies. Furthermore, conducting the research by taking the chain-hotel hospitality organisations as the target makes it feasible to reflect the different or identical features of the employees in chain and corporate hotels concerning the variables. Two regions in two different countries analysed in this study are evaluated within the context of resort hotel management (coast management). Hence, by collecting the thoughts and opinions of the staff elsewhere at the city-hotel level, it is suggested to determine if a difference exists between city and coast hotel management concerning the variables.
In order to avoid silence and cynicism, which may cause negative outcomes in an organisation, effective communication techniques can be helpful for staff to cope with stress and self-suggestion under the supervision of a leader. Also, middle and senior executives can provide motivation and successful leadership training to ensure that employees are successful, productive, and psychologically well, both in their business and lives.
Since social activities between the leader and the employee outside of work will help the staff get to know their leader, such interactions can eliminate the negative behaviours (silence, cynicism, etc.) that may occur in the organisation. The research findings show that cultural differences can also shape leadership styles. For this reason, it is suggested that managers should not ignore the socio-cultural structure when choosing one of these two leadership models.
The last part of the study is the suggestions for future studies developed on the results and the study's limitations.
Despite its significant contributions to the literature, this study has certain limitations. Firstly, in this intercultural study, Italy and Turkey's four- and five-star hotel capacities vary. The number of employees also shifts, making it impossible to collect the data as equally as intended. Secondly, as the aim was to conduct an intercultural analysis, more studies must be carried out to identify if, outside these two regions, identical or dissimilar results could also be attained in other geographical regions. From this viewpoint, in subsequent tourism-based studies, it would be possible to raise awareness by comparing Turkey and Italy with other destinations and foregrounding qualities.
To conclude, our work leads to interesting avenues for future research. Since there is a leader-manager and labour force in all organisations, the model and analyses of our research can also be implemented in a myriad of sectors such as industries, education, and service sectors outside of tourism.
The implementation location for this study was limited to four-and five-star hospitality establishments in Antalya (Turkey) and Amalfi Coast (Italy). In subsequent studies, it is suggested that by focusing on hospitality organisations with different certification grading, staff size, and managerial styles, analyses can be made in terms of their relationship with the variables in this research (transactional and transformational leadership, organisational silence, organisational cynicism, and psychological well-being).
Finally - and, specifically in intercultural studies - by conducting a preliminary analysis to become familiar with the hotel classifications in the two countries to be compared and by, choosing the most-commonly used classifications in both (two-three-, four-, five-star hotels, camps, hostels, etc.), and future attempts would potentially be more feasible in terms of quality and convenience in accessing the intended data.
