1. Introduction

In the last decades, the global environmental crisis has been threatening interna tional peace, security, and human life. Several cross-cutting challenges were con sidered priorities for achieving sustainable development and addressing the needs of the most vulnerable. Among those major issues, the environment, including cli mate change, biodiversity, pollution, and natural disasters, has been at the centre of the debates and policies worldwide. In parallel, the climate and environmental emergency - among other emergent threats such as the rise of exclusionary poli tics and conflicts - significantly jeopardizes the progress towards gender equality. Studies have demonstrated that the environmental crisis has gender-differentiated consequences as it disproportionally affects women and girls (UN Women, 2020). In this context, there has been increasing global attention on gender inequality, both through women’s activism and the adoption of gender-responsive policies. This arti cle emphasises the need to understand the interconnections between gender and the environment, otherwise referred to as the ‘gender-environment nexus’, to provide inclusive answers to current global challenges (OECD, 2021). We aim at bringing the two agendas together and acknowledging women’s role in the environmental crisis, both as victims and agents of change. In the first part, we analyse the interconnec tions between women’s traditional socioeconomic roles and environmental factors, including the impact of the climate crisis on women. In the second part, we observe the positive contributions that women and gender equality can bring to the envi ronment, especially through women’s strong activism and sustainable behaviours.

Finally, we expose some of the challenges and possible solutions to further recog nise the gender-environment nexus in environmental policies and decision-making processes. Overall, this article advocates for greater integration and understanding of women’s roles and needs in response to the global environmental crisis and to achieve sustainable development worldwide.

2. Women’s Socioeconomic Roles: Connected to the Environment

Environmental security and gender equality constitute cross-cutting issues that re quire global attention and action. Using a gendered lens to look at environmental matters - including agriculture, water, natural disasters, and air pollution - is cru cial to understanding the impact of these challenges on both women and men, and adopting inclusive solutions (OECD, 2021).

The linkages between the environment and gender equality are multiple. In 2016, UNEP published its Global Gender and Environment Outlook, recognising gender inequality as one of the main obstacles to environmental sustainability due to wom en’s restrained rights to a healthy and safe environment as well as access and control of natural resources (UNEP, 2016; 2020). Women’s limited rights of access to land and resources to sustain themselves increase the negative effects of environmental and climate issues in their lives. In parallel, the General Recommendation No. 37 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) states that

gender inequalities limit the control that women and girls have over decisions governing their lives as well as their access to resources such as food, water, agricultural inputs, land, credit, energy, technologies, education, health, ade quate housing, social protection and employment. As a result of these ine qualities, women and girls are more likely to be exposed to disaster-induced risks and losses related to their livelihoods and they are less able to adapt to changes in climatic conditions (CEDAW, 2018:3).

Consequently, to have a deeper understanding of the gender-environment nexus, this part analyses the extent to which women are connected to environmental factors through their socioeconomic roles.

Over time, patriarchal norms and traditions have imposed specific roles for women and handed more power and resources to men. In most developing econo mies, women are directly concerned with environmental issues through the variety of roles they carry out in their households and communities. In fact, women’s roles in the household as well as their basic needs rely particularly on the use of natural resources, such as the collection of clean water and the cultivation of food to sustain their families. In this sense, they play a crucial role in the use and control of natural resources, as most of their daily activities are directly linked to water, energy, and food production. However, according to the World Inequality Report 2022, while women produce half of the world’s food, they earn only 34% of the global labour income (^{Chancel et al., 2021}). While in a gender-equal world women would reach 50% of the income share, progress towards this goal has been slow since the 1990s, with a global increase of only 4% (Chancel & al., 2021). Indeed, as some countries registered constant progress, some others have experienced a reduction in women’s income share.

Globally, women have often limited opportunities outside the household, includ ing access to education, economic empowerment, and political participation. While men have greater access to alternative sources of income in urban centres, data re trieved from the United Nations show that women between 25 and 34 years old have 25% more chances to face extreme poverty (United Nations, 2019). Women spend over three times as many hours a day on unpaid care and domestic work as men and are more than twice as likely as men to be unemployed (United Nations, 2019). Fur thermore, in addition to the scarcity of lucrative employment opportunities, women are also far more often subjected to discrimination and violence in the workplace (OECD, 2021).

The existing gendered roles derived from the dominant patriarchal system and consequent socioeconomic inequalities increase the negative impact of environmen tal issues on women. Although it is essential to recognise the divergent experiences among women and the plurality of linkages with the environment, women’s biolog ical and reproductive roles in the family sphere give them a special position towards nature and expose them to risks of different kinds (^{Rico, 1998}). For instance, wom en’s daily household responsibilities and contact with poor quality fuels, particu larly used in the kitchen, increase their exposition to indoor air pollution. According to the World Health Organization, indoor air pollution poses a growing threat to human health, causing every year over 3,8 million premature deaths globally, with women being about as twice affected as men (WHO, 2021; Dida et al., 2022). In addi tion, extended exposure to indoor air pollution leads to other health problems such as chronic heart disease, respiratory diseases, lung infections, and cancer, as well as worsening maternal health outcomes and pregnancy loss (WHO, 2021).

Thus, the interdependent set of relationships between women’s roles and the use of natural resources makes them more vulnerable to environmental change. In this sense, the norms and ideological standpoints that consider women as primary caregivers reinforce their interdependence with the environment. The next section further explores the gender-environment nexus by focusing on women’s role in ag riculture.

3. Women as Agents of Change

The intensification of the global environmental crisis has led to a growing number of women engaging in environmental justice and raising their voices to demand trans formative change. Across the world, women appear as powerful actors and activ ists for climate action and sustainable development. Women’s climate activism dates back to the 1990s but the movement only gained global recognition in recent years, with women and youth at the forefront of the global campaign for climate action. They are raising awareness of the environmental damage caused by human activity and demanding the adoption of alternative and environment-compatible attitudes. At the grassroots level, women play an important role in the protection and con servation of biodiversity through sustainable consumption and production methods (OECD, 2021). Women’s groups engage with governments, the private sector, and other stakeholders to expand their advocacy and join forces to achieve sustainable development. An OECD report shows that women account for about 60% to 80% of mainstream environmental organisations’ members (OECD, 2021). In parallel, the digital era and the growing access to social media platforms have enabled civil soci ety actors and women, both from urban and rural areas, to raise their voices around the world. The activism of young leaders such as Greta Thunberg and Vanessa Na kate has significantly inspired youth environmentalist movements to mobilise for change (UNEP, 2020). For example, the #FridaysforFuture movement started in 2015 with young activists organising against the climate crisis in Sweden. The protest was amplified through social media and became rapidly global. In this context, women’s activism and role in the campaign against climate change has gained global atten tion, with millions of women mobilising worldwide against unsustainable practices affecting their lives and those of future generations.

In indigenous communities, women have also been engaged in the protection of their rights, especially related to the environment. For instance, in the United States, those communities are more vulnerable to environmental degradation, and women account for the majority of environmental activists (OECD, 2021). In traditional so cieties, rural women have strong interests in protecting natural resources as they are often the ones supplying food, water, and medicine to their families. In this sense, the survival of indigenous populations, highly dependent on local natural resources, is threatened by the negative effects of climate change and unsustainable human prac tices (OECD, 2021). Grassroots women often play an important role in providing al ternative methods and solutions to conserve biodiversity and tackling the difficulties affecting their local communities. According to the Native Women’s Association of Canada, composed of twelve indigenous groups of women engaged against the con sequences of environmental degradation on women,

Acknowledging the important role Indigenous women play in the conserva tion of biodiversity is not enough. To determine what actions are required to promote Indigenous women’s roles in biodiversity, traditional knowledge on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity must be valued and prioritized. (NWAC, 2018:7)

Indigenous women are traditionally engaged in the protection of the ecosys tem and traditional knowledge, culture, and rights. The conservation of traditional cultural activities is fundamental in those communities to maintain their sense of identity and increase their well-being (NWAC, 2018). However, environmental deg radation has significantly impacted the ability of indigenous women to transfer traditional environmental knowledge to the next generations, weakening their so cietal and cultural roles (NWAC, 2018). In addition, climate change disproportion ally affects women due to their socioeconomic vulnerability and daily roles related to land and water, as well as their exposure to sexual violence and other forms of discrimination. Therefore, we emphasise that indigenous women’s efforts towards sustainable practices should be adequately acknowledged and strengthened through capacity-building initiatives.

Similarly, Small Island Developing States (SIDS) constitute some of the most ex posed countries to hazardous events where women play an important role in the environmentalist movement (OECD, 2021). Although SIDS do not constitute a ho mogenous group, the negative effects of climate change significantly threaten the development of those communities. According to a report from OECD, SIDS are 73% more likely to be exposed to natural hazards than other countries in the same income category (OECD, 2021). Activities related to water collection, farming, and fishing, prominent in those societies and often carried on by women, are the most affected by natural hazards. Thus, women’s socioeconomic roles in SIDS are often threat ened by environmental disasters and climate change issues. This vulnerability has strengthened women’s climate justice activism and raised women’s voices towards more participation and representation in decision-making processes (OECD, 2021).

Women’s advocacy for social equity and participation in sustainable development has increased awareness of the linkages between gender, the environment and sus tainable development. At the household level, surveys demonstrate that women are more sensitive to health, ecological and environmental issues and are more likely to adopt green attitudes regarding recycling, reducing waste, driving less, adopting energy-saving practices, and buying organic products (OECD, 2021). Besides, studies show the existence of a correlation between green attitudes and femininity, consid ering that consumers engaging in green behaviours are perceived to be more fem inine. Consequently, men would tend to avoid green behaviours to maintain their masculine identity (Brough et al., 2016). Women’s contribution to sustainability has been recognised in declarations and policy documents globally. In 1992, Principle No. 20 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (A/CONF.151/26, Vol 1) affirmed that “women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their full participation is, therefore, essential to achieve sustainable development.” (United Nations, 1992:4). In fact, through their direct interfaces with demography, production, consumption, migration and power hierarchy within the family sphere, women represent bridges with the environmental dimension (^{Rico, 1998}).

Nevertheless, women around the world are often restrained by discrimina tory legal norms, traditions, and social practices that directly impact their rights and margins of engagement in the public sphere. In addition, the impact of envi ronmental degradation significantly reduces women’s ability and time to engage in decision-making at the community and national levels (Irish ^{Aid, 2007}). In this context, although they have a primary role in grassroots engagement and environ mental activism, their environmental work is not adequately strengthened, and their representation in decision-making, both in the public and private spheres, remains limited (OECD, 2021). Only a few women hold leadership positions related to en vironmental decision-making in sectors such as health, energy, and finance, even though they are considered more critical of waste or nuclear weapons than men (OECD, 2021).

Despite the importance of this gap, some studies have registered increasing num bers of women in science, climate, and environmental research as well as in environ mental-related decision-making globally (OECD, 2021). Female leaders have been engaged in the response to environmental degradation and climate change through the promotion of sustainable harvesting practices, environmental-compatible con sumption behaviours, natural risk management, and ecosystem conservation (^{Elwell & Williams, 2016}). In OECD member countries, the number of female policymakers related to environmental issues is increasing: In May 2020, women held more than 40% of policymaking positions as Ministers of Environment, National Focal Points for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) (OECD, 2021). Besides, under the Paris Agreement, Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) agreed to improve gender balance and women’s participation in all processes as well as support gender-responsible climate policies at all levels (UNFCCC, 2016). In parallel, researchers have demonstrated the existence of a correlation between women’s higher representation in parliaments and the adoption of environmental policies and international treaties. The OECD report “Women in Public Life” published in 2014, demonstrates that gender parity in deci sion-making processes enables a greater inclusion of women’s and children’s needs and interests (OECD/CAWTAR, 2014).

However, although there is increasing global recognition of women’s role in de cision-making processes, men hold 67% of decision-making roles under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement (UN Women, 2020). In addition, men represent 75% of parliamen tarian seats and 70% of climate negotiators globally (UNEP, 2020). At the same time, environmental degradation - including, for example, deforestation and air pollu tion - appears to be stronger in countries where gender inequality is high (^{Elwell & Williams, 2016}). Thus, despite women’s efforts to protect the environment, the rep resentation gap between women and men limits much of the progress that could be done towards gender equality and sustainable development. In this sense, the greater representation of women in leadership positions would improve the effectiveness of climate-related action and environmental sustainability (OECD, 2021). In our per spective, it is essential to recognise that women’s empowerment is directly linked to sustainable development and the realisation of the 2030 Agenda. Women’s equal participation in public decision-making on environment-related issues appears cru cial to ensure the integration of gender-responsive approaches in policymaking, the development of inclusive responses to climate change, as well as women’s socioeco nomic empowerment. The inclusion of gender-responsive approaches into environ mental actions and policies is directly linked with sustainable economic develop ment and global well-being (OECD, 2021).

4. Towards Gender-Responsive Policies on Climate Change

Gender-mainstreaming strategies - referring to the inclusion of women’s voices, needs, and experiences in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of all policies and programmes - are crucial to understanding the different needs and roles of women and adopting inclusive and effective responses to climate change (UN Women, 2020a). To maximise the effectiveness and sustainability of environ mental policies related to water, energy, land, and other natural resources, we em phasise in this part the importance of incorporating gender-responsive approaches in policymaking.

Several countries, such as Myanmar - considered the second most exposed country to hazardous events globally - have included gender analysis and assess ment components in their environmental strategies. In collaboration with UN En vironment and UN-Habitat, the Myanmar Climate Change Alliance Initiative con ducts assessments on gender vulnerability in several communities to understand women’s and men’s different perspectives and behaviours towards climate change (UNEP, 2020). Similarly, with the support of UN Environment, Lao People’s Dem ocratic Republic and Thailand have enhanced capacity-building programmes and recognised the link between gender and biodiversity to mainstream gender in their National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) (UNEP, 2020). Due to the central role that women play in biodiversity conservation, production, and eco logical education in their community, the integration of gender into national policies and action plans is crucial.

The incorporation of the gender dimension must also be considered in the allo cation of financial resources and budget planning. The connection between gender and green budgeting is central to acknowledging the gender-environment nexus in national budgeting strategies (OECD, 2021). For instance, the Rwandan National Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy has successfully aligned poverty, gender equality, environmental, and climate change issues in its budgeting plans. This inclusive strategy has resulted in an increase of over 26% in Rwanda’s agricultural budget between 2009 and 2011 (OECD, 2021).

According to an OECD survey conducted in 2019, 21 OECD countries declared taking into consideration the gender dimension in environmental policymaking, especially when related to climate change; green employment; women’s leadership in environmental decision-making; agriculture and forestry; energy; and environ mental justice (OECD, 2020). Several platforms, such as the UN Framework Con vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), have also integrated a gender approach to their climate action plans. Nevertheless, despite the global recognition of the dis proportional impact of climate change on women, as well as women’s capabilities to tackle the negative effects of climate change, the number of countries that adopted a gender-responsive approach to their climate change strategies remains insufficient (OECD, 2021).

A major challenge continues to be the lack of gender-disaggregated data, as em phasised in the Gender Action Plan adopted during UNFCCC COP 25 in 2019. The report states that

Parties should provide summary information on the current status of na tional plans, programmes and support for ground and space-based climate observing systems, including long-term continuity of data, data quality con trol and availability, and exchange and archiving of data (UNFCCC, 2019:57)

To narrow down the data gap, several initiatives aim at increasing the informa tion available and deepening the analysis regarding gender and the environment. For example, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) have developed eighteen gen der-environment indicators, divided into major thematic, including the right to land, natural resources and biodiversity; access to food, energy, water and sanitation; cli mate change, sustainable production and consumption, and health; and women in environmental decision making at all levels (UNEP & IUCN, 2019). Besides, other stakeholders such as businesses and civil society actors also produce gender-disag gregated data to raise awareness of the gender-environment nexus (OECD, 2021).

In parallel, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, formulated in 2015 as a collective action to strengthen universal peace and prosperity, highlights the linkages between development, peace, and gender equality. If gender equality and environmental sustainability constitute central aspects of the agenda, to some ex tent, the framework fails to recognise the multiple interconnections that build up the gender-environment nexus. The impact of environmental degradation on women as well as the contributions of gender equality to the environment - including women’s efforts towards sustainable development - remain insufficiently promoted (OECD, 2021). In fact, while nine of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are related to the environment, none of them includes a gender approach. In this regard, we ar gue that the 2030 Agenda does not adequately emphasise the extent to which gender equality would contribute to meeting the SDGs. In our view, the SDG framework constitutes an important tool to acknowledge the linkages between the environment and gender equality, including gender gaps related to the use, control, and ownership of natural resources worldwide. By leaving the gender-environment nexus behind, gender inequalities may remain unaddressed and further exacerbate. In this regard, it appears essential to strengthen the gender-environment nexus in the SDG frame work to increase stakeholders’ awareness (OECD, 2021). A better understanding of those interactions would increase synergies to address and coordinate the multiple goals more efficiently.

Thus, despite the growing attention given to the gender-environment nexus and the progress made by some countries in this sense, more political will is necessary to ensure the implementation of national commitments towards these goals (OECD, 2021). While the incorporation of the gender dimension into environment-related policies remains insufficient, it is also essential to implement follow-up mechanisms to guarantee the effective implementation of gender-responsive norms. Beyond the recognition of women’s specific interests and roles, the inclusion of the gender per spective into environmental solutions must be directed towards increased women’s leadership and engagement in decision-making (UNEP, 2020). The consultation of women’s organisations and integration of gender mechanisms in environmental de cision-making is essential to make women part of the solution. In this regard, dia logue among stakeholders, experts, and local actors must be strengthened. It is cru cial to consider gender, human rights, and the environment as cross-cutting issues to adopt sustainable attitudes that will ensure equal rights for all over the access and management of natural resources (UNEP, 2020).

The persistence of patriarchal norms, gender stereotypes and discriminatory practices worldwide constitute major challenges hindering women’s empowerment in all sectors, including their contribution to sustainability and the environment. In our perspective, education is key to raising awareness on the gender-environment nexus as well as strengthening women’s environment-related skills and enhancing their role as drivers of change. Skill training and educational opportunities would narrow down the gender gaps and increase women’s access to green employment and finance. More opportunities and knowledge on environmental sustainability would contribute to promoting women’s empowerment and linking gender equality with environmental sustainability. In addition, gender-responsive policies, programmes, and structures will set an enabling environment for women to be empowered and strengthen their participation in policymaking, both regarding environmental is sues and other major challenges. In this sense, gender equality and women’s eco nomic empowerment are part of the response to climate instability and towards pos itive change for the planet.

5. Conclusion

The global climate crisis has placed our planet on the edge of an environmental breakdown, including global warming, biodiversity loss and environmental deg radation. Millions of people are affected by the negative consequences of climate change, exacerbating conflict, inequality, and poverty worldwide (UN Women, 2020). Women and girls constitute most of the world’s poorest and most vulnerable to the effects of the environmental emergency. In fact, they are disproportionally im pacted by environmental degradation and climate change, especially due to the exist ence of gender gaps regarding their roles, rights, and socioeconomic status. Women are often associated with households and childcaring roles that highly depend on the use and access to natural resources. Moreover, gender inequalities are being exacer bated by the lack of food and water, increasing air pollution, and the rise of natural disasters resulting from the environmental crisis. However, the gender-environment nexus does not only result from women’s vulnerability to environmental degradation but also from their engagement, knowledge, and efforts towards the sustainable use and consumption of natural resources. Indeed, women are actively engaged in cli mate action and often tend to adopt more sustainable behaviours on environmental questions. In this sense, women’s organisations and grassroots activism have a prom inent role in the global campaign against climate change. Women and girls are at the forefront of environmental movements and their engagement has led to positive results with regards to ecological well-being (UN Women, 2020). In this context, this article highlights the need for increased coordination and collaboration between all stakeholders as a global partnership to take transformative action and achieve inclu sive and sustainable development. Governments, civil society actors and the private sector should increase coordinated efforts to address women’s concerns and reduce the damages caused by climate change, with women’s voices as part of the solution. The multi-faced world crisis that we face requires collective engagement and action. Gender equality must be considered a fundamental goal to address the environmen tal damage that threatens human wellbeing.