Orlando Lourenço (*)
RESUMO
A teoria de Piaget tem sido sujeita ao que pode ser chamada a sua interpretação padrão. Embora tornada possível pela ambiguidade de Piaget em relação a alguns dos seus conceitos centrais (e.g., estádio e estrutura), essa interpretação deve-se em grande parte ao seu foco sobre a teoria de estádios estruturais de Piaget em detrimento da sua teoria de equilibração, e à sua ênfase em investigações factuais em detrimento das conceptuais. Neste estudo eu mostro que é possível e importante ir além da interpretação padrão de Piaget, e reinterpretar ou estender a teoria de Piaget na base da epistemologia construtivista que a informa. Argumento que quando se vai além da interpretação padrão, então na teoria de Piaget (1) são os comportamentos, não as pessoas, que estão em estádios; (2) a idade é um indicador, não um critério de desenvolvimento; (3) é a necessidade lógica, não a verdade, que é a questão central da psicogénese; (4) a construção do conhecimento não é uma tarefa individual, mas social; (5) as estruturas de conjunto são critérios formais mais do que entidades funcionais; (6) não há apenas um, mas múltiplos percursos desenvolvimentistas; (7) o que os sujeitos fazem ao raciocinar não é seguir regras lógicas, mas agir e operar; e (8) conteúdo e significado, não apenas forma e estrutura, desempenham um papel central na compreensão operatória. Defendo também que quando se vai além da interpretação padrão da teoria de Piaget, muitas das críticas que lhe têm sido dirigidas perdem muito do seu conteúdo empírico ou razão de ser, e descobre-se que os problemas levantados pela teoria são relativamente diferentes dos que apareceram em primeiro lugar.
Palavras-chave: Teoria de Piaget, desenvolvimento, construção.
ABSTRACT
]]> Piaget's theory has been subject to what may be called its standard interpretation. Although made possible by Piaget's ambiguity about some of his key concepts (e.g., stage and structure), such an interpretation is greatly due to its focus on Piaget's structural-stage theory at the expense of his equilibration theory, and also to its emphasis on factual investigations at the cost of conceptual investigations. In this paper, I show that it is possible and important to go beyond the standard reading of Piaget's theory, and to extend or reinterpret it on the basis of the constructivist epistemology that lies at the heart of his work. I argue that when one goes beyond the standard reading of Piaget, then in his theory (1) people are not at stages, performances are; (2) age is an indicator, not a criterion, of development; (3) logical necessity, not truth, is the central question of psychogenesis; (4) structures-of-the-whole are formal, not functional, entities; (5) the construction of knowledge is not a solitary, but a social enterprise; (6) there are multiple, not one, developmental pathways; (7) while reasoning, subjects do not follow logical rules, but act and operate upon reality; and (8) meaning and content, not only form and structure, play a central role in operational understanding and development. I also claim that when one goes beyond the standard interpretation of Piaget, most of the criticisms against his theory partly lose their empirical content and «raison d'être», and one discovers that the problems are somewhat different than they appeared at first.Key words: Piaget´s Theory, development, construction
Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.
Full text only available in PDF format.
REFERÊNCIAS
]]>Anderson, A., & Belnap, N. (1975). Entailment: The logic of relevance and necessity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
[ Links ]Azar, B. (1997, Jun). New theory on development could usurp Piagetian beliefs. APA Monitor, p. 9.
Baillargeon, R. (1987). Object permanence in 3 1/2-and 4 1/2-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 23, 655-664.
Baltes, P. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23, 611-626.
Beilin, H. (1992a). Piaget's enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28, 191-204.
Beilin, H. (1992b). Piaget's new theory. In H. Beilin & P. Pufall (Eds.), Piaget's theory: Prospects and possibilities (pp. 1-17). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Beilin, H. (1993a). Anticipating the future: Piaget's theory. Genetic Epistemologist, 21 (1), 10-11.
Beilin, H. (1993b). Mechanisms in the explanation of cognitive development. In J. Montangero, A. Cornu-Wells, A. Tryphon, & J. Vonèche (Eds.), Conceptions of change over time (pp. 137-157). Genève: Foundation Archives Jean Piaget.
Bickhard, M., Cooper, R., & Mace, P. (1985). Vestiges of logical positivism: Critiques of stage explanations. Human Development, 28, 240-258.
Bidell, T. (1988). Vygotsky, Piaget, and the dialectic of development. Human Development, 31, 329-348.
]]> Bjorklund, D. (1997). In search of a metatheory for cognitive development (Or, Piaget is dead and I don't feel good myself). Child Development, 68, 144-148.Bond, T. (1995). Piaget and measurement II: Empirical validation of the Piagetian model. Archives de Psychologie, 63, 155-185.
Bradmetz, J. (1993). Y a-t-il des stades dans le développement de l' intelligence opératoire concrete? [Are there stages in the development of concrete operational intelligence?]. Archives de Psychologie, 61, 95-125.
Braine, M. (1959). The ontogeny of certain logical operations: Piaget's formulations examined by nonverbal methods. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 73, 1-43.
Braine, M. (1962). Piaget on reasoning: A methodological critique for the presence of cognitive structures. Psychological Bulletin, 79, 172-179.
Braine, M. (1978). On the relation between the natural logic of reasoning and standard logic. Psychological Review, 85, 1-21.
Braine, M. (1990). The «natural logic» approach to reasoning. In W. Overton (Ed.), Reasoning, necessity, and logic: Developmental perspectives (pp. 133-157). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brainerd, C. (1973a). Judgments and explanations as criteria for the presence of cognitive structures. Psychological Bulletin, 79, 172-179.
Brainerd, C. (1973b). Order of acquisition of transitivity, conservation, and class-inclusion of length and weight. Developmental Psychology, 8, 105-116.
Brainerd, C. (1974). Training and transfer of transitivity, conservation, and class-inclusion of length. Child Development, 45, 324-334.
]]> Brainerd, C. (1977). Response criteria in concept development. Child Development, 48, 360-366.Brainerd, C. (1978). The stage question in cognitive-developmental theory. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2, 173-213.
Brainerd, C. (1997, May). Fifty years of cognitive development. Paper presented at the 5th Anniversary Symposium, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
Brainerd, C., & Kingma, J. (1984). Do children have to remember to reason? A fuzzy-trace theory of transitivity development. Developmental Review, 4, 311-377.
Brainerd, C., & Reyna, V. (1993). Memory independence and memory interference in cognitive development. Psychological Review, 100, 42-67.
Bringuier, J. (1980). Conversations with Piaget. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1977).
Broughton, J. (1981). Piaget's structural developmental psychology IV: Knowledge without a self and without history. Human Development, 24, 320-346.
Broughton, J. (1984). Not beyond formal operations but beyond Piaget. In M. Commons, F. Richards, & C. Armon (Eds.), Beyond formal operations (pp. 395-411). New York: Praeger.
Bruner, J. (1982). The organization of action and the nature of adult-infant transition. In M. Cranach & R. Harre (Eds.), The analysis of action (pp. 280-296). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bruner, J. (1983). State of the child. New York Review of Books, 30, 83-89.
]]> Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 21-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Bruner, J. (1992). The narrative construction of reality. In H. Beilin & P. Pufall (Eds.), Piaget's theory: Prospects and possibilities (pp. 229-248). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bruner, J., & Kenney, H. (1966). On multiple ordering. In J. Bruner, R. Olver, & P. Greenfield (Eds.), Studies in cognitive growth (pp. 154-167). New York: Wiley.
Bryant, P., & Trabasso, T. (1971). Transitive inference and memory. Nature, 232, 456-458.
Byrnes, J. (1992). Meaningful logic: Developmental perspectives. In H. Beilin & P. Pufall (Eds.), Piaget's theory: Prospects and possibilities (pp. 163-183). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Campbell, R., & Bickhard, M. (1986). Knowing levels and developmental stages. Basel: Karger.
Carpendale, J. (1997). An explication of Piaget's constructivism: Implications for social cognitive development. In S. Hala (Ed.), The development of social cognition (pp. 35-64). Hove: Psychology Press.
Carpendale J., McBride, B., & Chapman, M. (1996). Language and operations in children's class inclusion reasoning: The operational semantic theory of reasoning. Developmental Review, 16, 391-415.
Case, R. (1992). The mind's staircase. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Case, R. (1996, in press). The development of conceptual structures. In W. Damon (series editor). Handbook of child psychology (5th ed), D. Kuhn & R. Siegler (volume editors), Cognition, perception,and language. New York: Wiley.
]]> Chandler, M., & Chapman, M. (1991) (Eds.). Criteria for competence. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Chapman, M. (1987). Inner processes and outward criteria: Wittgenstein's importance for psychology. In M. Chapman & R. Dixon (Eds.), Meaning and the growth of understanding (pp. 103-127). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Chapman, M. (1988a). Constructive evolution: Origins and development of Piaget's thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Chapman, M. (1988b). Contextuality and directionality of cognitive development. Human Development, 31, 92-106.
Chapman, M. (1991a). Constructivism and the problem of reality. Lecture presented at the meetings of the ISSBD, Minneapolis, July 1991.
Chapman, M. (1991b). The epistemic triangle: Operative and communicative components of cognitive competence. In M. Chandler & M. Chapman (Eds.), Criteria for competence (pp. 209-228). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chapman, M. (1992). Equilibration and the dialectics of organization. In H. Beilin & P. Pufall (Eds.), Piaget's theory: Prospects and possibilities (pp. 39-59). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chapman, M., & Lindenberger, U. (1988). Functions, operations, and decalage in the development of transitivity. Developmental Psychology, 24, 542-551.
Chapman, M., & McBride, M. (1996). Beyond competence and performance. In L. Smith (Ed.), Critical readings on Piaget (pp. 376-395). London: Routledge.
Cheng, P., & Holyoak, K. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 391-416.
Cohen, D. (1983). Piaget: Critique and assessment. London & Camberra: Croom Helm.
]]> Cole, M. (1992). Context, modularity, and the cultural constitution of development. In L. Winegar, & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Children's development within social context (pp.5-31). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Cole, M., & Wertsch, J. (1996). Beyond the individual-social antinomy in discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Human Development, 39, 250-256.
Commons, M., Goodheart. E., & Bresette, L. (1995). Formal, systematic, and metasystematic operations with a balance-beam task series: A relpy to Kallio's claim of no distinct systematic stage. Journal of Adult Development, 2, 193-199.
Corrigan, R. (1979). Cognitive correlates of language: Differential criteria yield differential results. Child Development, 50, 617-631.
Dassen, P. (Ed.) (1977). Piagetian psychology: Cross-cultural contributions. New York: Gardner Press.
Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., Papadaki, M., Papantoniou, G., & Economou, A. (1993). Structure and development of causal experimental thought: From early adolescence to youth. Developmental Psychology, 29, 480-497.
Doise, W., & Mugny, G. (1984). The social development of the intellect. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Donaldson, M. (1987). Children's minds. London: Fontana Press.Duncan, R. (1995). Piaget and Vygotsky revisited: Dialogue or assimilation. Developmental Review, 15, 458-472.
Ennis, R. (1982). Children's ability to handle propositional logic: A conceptual critique. In S. Modgil, & C. Modgil (Eds.), Jean Piaget: Consensus and controversy (pp. 101-130). London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Evans, J., Newstead, S., & Byrne, R. (1993). Human reasoning: The psychology of deduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
]]> Falmagne, R., & Gonsalves, J. (1995). Deductive inference. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 525-559.Fischer, K. (1980). A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills. Psychological Review, 87, 477-531.
Fischer, K. (1983). Developmental levels as periods of discontinuity. In K. Fischer (Ed.), Levels and transitions in children's development (pp. 5-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fischer, K., & Bidell, T. (1991). Constraining nativist inferences about cognitive capacities. In S. Carey, & R. Gelman (Eds), The epigenesis of mind (pp. 199-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fischer, K., Bullock, D., Rotenberg, E., & Raya, P. (1993). The dynamics of competence: How context contributes directly to skill. In R. Wozniak & K. Fischer (Eds.), Development in context (pp. 93-117). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fischer, K., & Granott, N. (1995). Beyond one-dimensional change: Parallel, concurrent, socially distributed processes in learning and development. Human Development, 38, 302-314.
Fischer, K., Knight, C., & VanParys, M. (1993). Analyzing diversity in developmental pathways: Methods and concepts. In R. Case, & W. Edelstein (Eds.), The new structuralism in cognitive development. Theory and research on individual pathways. Contributions to human development (Vol. 23, pp. 33-56). New York: Karger.
Flanagan, O. (1992). The science of the mind. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Flavell, J. (1963). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
Flavell, J. (1982). Structures, stages, and sequences in cognitive development. In W. Collins (Ed.), The concept of development (pp. 1-28). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
]]> Flavell, J. (1985). Cognitive development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Flavell, J. (1996). Piaget's legacy. Psychological Science, 7, 200-203.
Flavell, J., & Wohlwill, J. (1969). Formal and functional aspects of cognitive development. In D. Elkind, & J. Flavell (Eds.), Studies in cognitive development: Essays in honor of Jean Piaget (pp. 67-120). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Forman, E. (1992). Discourse, intersubjectivity, and the development of peer collaboration: A Vygotskian approach. In L. Winegar & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Children's development within social context (Vol. 1, pp. 143-159). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fowler, C. (1992). Siegler and Crowley's (1991) conception of development. American Psychologist, 47, 1239-1240.
Freud, S. (1936). The ego and the mechanisms of defense. New York: International Universities Press.
Friederich, D. (1972). A primer for developmental psychology. Minneapolis, MN: Burgless Publishing Company.
Furth, H. (1987). Knowledge as desire: an essay on Piaget and Freud. New York: Columbia University Press.
Furth, H. (1996). Human mind in human society. Human Development, 39, 264-268.
Garcia, R. (1992). The structure of knowledge and the knowledge of structure. In H. Beilin, & P. Pufall (Eds.), Piaget's theory: prospects and possibilities (pp. 1-38). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
]]> Gelman, R. (1972). Logical capacity of very young children: Number invariance rules. Child Development, 43, 75-90.Gelman, R., & Baillargeon, R. (1983). A review of some Piagetian concepts. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 167-230). New York: Wiley.
Glasersfeld, E. (1996). Learning and development in the theory of constructivism. In L. Smith (Ed.), Critical Readings on Piaget (pp. 20-27). London: Routledge.
Glassman, M. (1994). All things being equal: The two roads of Piaget and Vygotsky. Developmental Review, 14, 186-214.
Glassman, M. (1996). Understanding Vygotsky's motive and goal: An exploration of the work of A. N. Leontiev. Human Development, 39, 309-327.
Gopnik, A. (1996). The post-Piaget era. Psychological Science, 7, 221-225.
Gouin-Décarie, T., & Ricard, M. (1996). Rivisiting Piaget revisited or the vulnerability of Piaget’s infancy theory in the 1990s. In G. Noam & K. Fischer (Eds.), Development and vulnerability in close relationships (pp. 113-132). Mahawah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Grice, P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole, & J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics, Vol. 3: Speech acts (pp. 41-58). New York: Academic Press.
Gruber, H., & Vonèche, J. (Eds.) (1995). The essential Piaget (100th anniversary edition). Northvale: Jason Aronson Inc.
Hagen, R. (1997). In praise of the null hypothesis statistical test. American Psychologist, 52, 15-24.
]]> Halford, G. (1989). Reflections on 25 years of Piagetian cognitive developmental psychology, 1963-1968. Human Development, 32, 325-357.Hamlyn, D. (1982). Experience and growth of understanding. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Hofmann, R. (1982). Potential sources of structural invalidity in Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian assessment. In S. Modgil & C. Modgil (Eds.), Jean Piaget: Consensus and controversy (pp. 223-239). London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Inhelder, B., & De Caprona, D. (1990). The role of meaning of structures in genetic epistemology. In W. Overton (Ed.), Reasoning, necessity, and logic: Developmental perspectives (pp. 33-44). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1955). De la logique de l'enfant à la logique de l'adolescent [The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Johnson-Laird, P. (1983). Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Johnson-Laird, P., & Byrne, R. (1991). Deduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kitchener, R. (1996). The nature of the social for Piaget and Vygostsky. Human Development, 39, 243-249.
Koch, S. (1981). The nature and limits of psychological knowledge: Lessons of a century qua «science». American Psychologist, 36, 257-269.
]]> Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development. Vol. 2. New York: Harper & Row. Kohlberg, L. (1990). Which postformal levels are stages? In M. Commons, C. Armon, L. Kohlberg, F. Richards, T. Grotzer, & J. Sinnott (Eds.), Adult development (Vol. 2, pp. 263-268). New York: Praeger.Kohlberg, L., & Armon, C. (1984). Three types of stage models used in the study of adult development. In M. Commons, F. Richards, & C. Armon (Eds.),Beyond formal operations (pp. 383-394). New York: Praeger.
Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In I. Lakatos, & I. Musgrave (Eds.), Criticism and the growth of knowledge (pp. 91-196). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Larivée, S., Normandeau, S., & Parent, S. (1996). The French connection: Contributions of French-language research in the pos-Piagetian era (Université de Montréal, unpublished manuscript).
Lautrey, J. (1980). La variabilité intra-individuelle du niveau du développement opératoire et ses implications théoriques [intraindividual variability in operational development and its theoretical implications]. Bulletin de Psychologie, 345, 685-697.
Lautrey, J. (1985). Stades et différences [Stages and differences]. In J. Bideau & R. Richelle (Eds.), Psychologie développementale. Problèmes et réalitiés (pp. 299-316). Bruxelles: Pierre Mardaga.
Levin, I. (Ed.) (1986). Stage and structure: Reopening the debate. New Jersey: Ablex.
Liben, L. (1997, Fall). Standing on the shoulders of giants - or collapsing on the backs of straw men? The Developmental Psychologist, 2-14.
Liben, L., & Downs, R. (1997, in press). Can-ism and can-tianism: A straw child. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 87, 159-167.
Lind, G. (1995). The meaning and measurement of moral competence revisited: A dual-aspect model. Invited paper presented at the AERA 1995 Annual Meeting in San Francisco.
]]> Lipsitt, L. (1981). Sensorimotor development: What infants do and how we think about what they do. In I. Sigel, D. Brodzinsky, & R. Golinkoff (Eds.), New directions in Piagetian theory and practice (pp. 29-37). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Loftus, G. (1996). Psychology will be a much better science when we change the way we analyze data. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5, 161-171.
Longeot, F. (1969). Psychologie différentielle et théorie opératoire de l'intelligence [Differential psychology and the operational intelligence theory]. Paris: Dunod.
Longeot, F. (1978). Les stades opératoires de Piaget et les facteurs de l'intelligence [Piaget's operational stages and dimensions in intelligence]. Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble.
Lourenço, O. (1994). Além de Piaget! Sim, mas devagar [Beyond Piaget? Yes, but carefully]. Coimbra: Almedina.
Lourenço, O. (1995). Piaget's logic of meanings and conditional reasoning in adolescents and adults. Archives de Psychologie, 63, 187-203.
Lourenço, O. (1997a). Piaget, psicólogo de necessário [Piaget, the psychologist of the necessary]. Revista de Educação, 6 (2), 3-8.
Lourenço, O. (1997b). Psicologia de desenvolvimento cognitivo: Teoria, dados e implicações. Coimbra: Almedina.
Lourenço, O., & Machado, A. (1996). In defense of Piaget's theory: A reply to 10 common criticisms. Psychological Review, 103, 143-164.
Machado, A., Lourenço, & Silva, F. (1997). In a dissonant voice: The psychology of our discontent. Manuscrito submetido para publicação.
]]> Matalon, B. (1990). A genetic study of implication. In W. Overton (Ed.), Reasoning, necessity, and logic: Developmental perspectives (pp. 87-110). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.McGarrigle, J., Grieve, R., & Hughes, M. (1978). Interpreting inclusion: A contribution to the study of the child's cognitive and linguistic development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 25, 528-550.
Meehl, P. (1978). Theoretical risks and tabular asterisks: Sir Karl, Sir Ronald, and the slow progress of soft psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 806-834.
Miller, M. (1987). Argumentation and cognition. In M. Hickmann (Ed.), Social and functional approaches to language and thought (pp. 225-249). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Miller, P. (1993). Theories of developmental psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Freeman.
Montangero, J. (1991). A constructivist framework for understanding early and late developing psychological competencies. In M. Chandler & M. Chapman (Eds.), Criteria for competence (pp. 111-129). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Montangenro, J., Cornu-Wells, Tryphon, T., & Vonèche, J. (Eds.) (1993). Conceptions of change of time. Genève: Fondation Archives Jean Piaget.
Murray, F. (1983). Learning and development through social interaction and conflict: A challenge to social learning theory. In L. Liben (Ed.), Piaget and the foundations of knowledge (pp. 231-247). Hills-dale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Nicolis, G. (1993). Nonlinear dynamics and evolution of complex systems. In J. Montangero, A. Cornu-Wells, A. Tryphon, & J. Vonèche (Eds.), Conceptions of change over time (pp.17-31). Genève: Fondation Archives Jean Piaget.
Ohama, K. (1996). Entailment and familiarity in formal reasoning: An experimental study toward a logic of meanings (poster presented at the Growing Mind Conference (Geneva, September 14-16).
]]> Osterrieth, P., Piaget, J., Saussure, R., Tanner, J., Wallon, H., Zazzo, R., Inhelder, B., & Rey, A. (1956). Le problème des stades en psychologie de l'enfant [The problem of stages in child psychology]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Overton, W. (Ed.) (1990). Reasoning, necessity and logical: developmental perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Overton, W. (1997). Developmental psychology: Philosophy, concepts, and methodology. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 107-188), New York: Wiley.
Overton, D., & Palermo, D. (Eds.) (1994). The nature and ontogenesis of meaning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Perret-Clermont, A. (1980). Social interaction and cognitive development in children. New York: Academic Press.
Piaget, J. (1923). Le langage et la pensée chez l'enfant [Language and thought of the child]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Piaget, J. (1924). Le jugement et le raisonnement chez l'enfant [Judgment and reasoning in the child]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Piaget, J. (1926). La représentation du monde chez l'enfant [The child's conception of the world]. Paris: Alcan.
Piaget, J. (1932). Le jugement moral chez l'enfant [The moral judgment of the child]. Paris: Alcan.
Piaget, J. (1936). La naissance de l'intelligence chez l'enfant [The origins of intelligence in the child]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
]]> Piaget, J. (1937). La construction du réel chez l'enfant [The construction of reality in the child]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delacahux et Niestlé.Piaget, J. (1941). Le mécanisme du développement mental et les lois du groupement des opérations [The mechanism of mental development and the laws of grouping of operations]. Archives de Psychologie, 28, 215-285.
Piaget, J. (1942). Classes, relations et nombres [Classes, relations, and numbers]. Paris: J. Vrin.
Piaget, J. (1946/1976). La formation du symbole chez l'enfant [Play, dreams, and play in childhood]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Piaget, J. (1947/1967). La psychologie de l'intelligence [The psychology of intelligence]. Paris: Armand Colin.
Piaget, J. (1950/1973). Introduction à l'épistémologie génétique: La pensée mathématique [Introduction to genetic epistemology: Vol. 1: Mathematical thought] Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1952). Essai sur les transformations de les opérations logiques [On the transformations of the logical operations]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1953). Logic and psychology. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Piaget, J. (1960). The general problems of the psychobiological development of the child. In J. Tanner, & B. Inhelder (Eds.), Discussions on child development (Vol. 4, pp. 3-27). London: Tavistock Publications.
Piaget, J. (1964). Six études de psychologie [Six psychological studies]. Paris: Gonthier.
]]> Piaget, J. (1967a). Biologie et connaissanse [Biology and knowledge]. Saint Amand: Gallimard.Piaget, J. (1967b). Logique et connaissance scientifique [Logic and scientific knowledge]. Dijon: Gallimard.
Piaget, J. (1967c). L'explication en psychologie et le parallélisme psychophysiologique [Explanation in psychology and the psychophysiological parallelism]. In P. Fraisse, & J. Piaget (Eds.), Traité de psychologie expérimentale (Vol. 1, pp. 123-162). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1968a). Le structuralisme [Structuralism]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1968b). Epistémologie et psychologie de la fonction [Epistemology and the psychology of functions]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1970). L'épistémologie génétique [Genetic epistemology]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1972a). Problèmes de psychologie génétique [Problems of genetic psychology]. Paris: Denoel.
Piaget, J. (1972b). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12.
Piaget, J. (1972c). Où va l'éducation [The future of education]. Paris: Gonthier.
Piaget, J. (1973). Main trends in psychology. London: Allen & Unwin.
]]> Piaget, J. (1974). Recherches sur la contradiction [Experiments in contradiction]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Piaget, J. (1975). L'équilibration des structures cognitives [The equilibration of cognitive structures]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1976). Le comportement, moteur de l'évolution [behavior and evolution]. Saint-Amand: Gallimard.
Piaget, J. (1977). Recherches sur l'abstraction réfléchissante [Experiments in reflecting abstraction]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1978). Recherches sur la généralisation [Experiments in generalisation]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1980a). Les formes élémentaires de la dialectique [The elementary forms of dialectics]. Saint Amand: Gallimard.
Piaget, J. (1980b). Recherches sur les correspondances [Experiments in correspondences]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1980c). Recent studies in genetic epistemology. Cahiers de la Fondation Archives Jean Piaget, 1, 3-7.
Piaget, J. (1981). Le possible et le nécessaire: L'évolution des possibles chez l'enfant [Possibility and necessity: Vol. 1 - The role of possibility in cognitive development]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1983a). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 103-128). New York: Wiley.
]]> Piaget, J. (1983b). Le possible et le nécessaire: L'évolution du nécessaire chez l'enfant [Possibility and necessity: The role of necessity in cognitive development]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Piaget, J. (1986). Essay on necessity. Human Development, 29, 301-314.
Piaget, J. (1995). Sociological studies. London: Routledge (original work published 1965, expanded 2nd ed. 1977).
Piaget, J., & Garcia, R. (1983). Psychogenèse et histoire des sciences [Psychogenesis and the history of science]. Paris: Flammarion.
Piaget, J., & Garcia, R. (1987). Vers une logique des significations [Toward a logic of meaning]. Genève: Murionde.
Piaget, J., Henriques, G., & Ascher, E., (1990). Morphismes et catégories [Morphisms and categories]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1959). La genèse des structures logiques élémentaires [The early growth of logic in children]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1941/1968). Le développement des quantités physiques chez l'enfant [The child's construction of quantities]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1966/1973). La psychologie de l'enfant [The psychology of the child]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J., & Szeminska, A. (1941/1980). La genèse du nombre chez l'enfant [The child's conception of number]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux et Niestlé.
]]> Piéraut-Le Bonniec, G. (1990). Logic of meaning and meaningful implication. In W. Overton (Ed.), Reasoning, necessity, and logic: developmental perspectives (pp. 67-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Pinard, A., & Laurendeau, M. (1969). «Stage» in Piaget's cognitive developmental theory: Exegesis of a concept. In D. Elkind & J. Flavell (Eds.), Studies in cognitive development: Essays in honor of Jean Piaget (pp. 121-170). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rest, J. (1979). Developing in judging moral issues. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Reuchlin, M. (1995). Totalités, éléments, structures en psychologie générale et en psychologie différentielle [Totalities, elements, and structures in general and differential psychology]. In J. Lautrey (Ed.), Universel et différentiel en psychologie (pp. 17-33). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Ricco, R. (1990). Necessity and the logic of entailment. In W. Overton (Ed.), Reasoning, necessity, and logic: developmental perspectives (pp. 45-65). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ricco, R. (1993). Revising the logic of operations as a relevance logic: From hypothesis testing to explanation. Human Development, 36, 125-146.
Richelle, M. (1993). F. B. Skinner: a reappraisal. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rieben, L., Ribaupierre, A., & Lautrey, J. (1983). Le développement opératoire de l'enfant entre 6 et 12 ans [The operational development of the child from 6 to 12 years of age]. Paris: Centre National de Recherche Scientifique.
Rogoff, B., & Chavajay, P. (1995). What's become of research on the cultural bias of cognitive development. American Psychologist, 50, 859-877.
]]> Rose, S., & Blank, M. (1974). The potency of context in children's cognition: An illustration through conservation. Child Development, 45, 499-502.Scarr, S. (1997). Toward a free market in research ideas. Observer, 10 (3), 32-33.
Skinner, B. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Alfred A. Knoff.
Skinner, B. (1977). Why I am not a cognitive psychologist. Behaviorism, 5, 1-10.
Siegal, M. (1991). Knowing children. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Siegal, M., & Peterson, D. (1996). Contamination sensitivity in young children. Developmental Psychology, 26, 455-458.
Siegal, M., Waters, J., & Dinwiddy, L. (1988). Misleading children: Causal attributions for inconsistency under repeated questioning. Journal of Experimental Child Behavior, 45, 438-456.
Siegel, L. (1982). The development of quantity concepts: Perceptual and linguistic factors. In C. Brainerd (Ed.), Children's logical and mathematical cognition (pp. 123-155). New York: Spring-Verlag.
Siegel, L., & Brainerd, C. (Eds.) (1978a). Alternatives to Piaget. New York: Academic Press.
Siegel, L., & Brainerd, C. (1978b). Preface. In L. Siegel & C. Brainerd (Eds.), Alternatives to Piaget. New York: Academic Press.
]]> Siegel, L., McCabe, A., Brand, J., & Matthews, J. (1978). Evidence for the understanding of class inclusion in preschool children: Linguistic factors and training effects. Child Development, 49, 688-693.Siegler, R. (1994). Cognitive variability: a key to understanding cognitive development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3, 1-5.
Smith, L. (1991). Age, ability, and intellectual development in Piagetian theory. In M. Chandler & M. Chapman (Eds.), Criteria for competence (pp. 69-91). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Smith, L. (1993). Necessary knowledge: Piagetian perspectives on constructivism. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Smith, L. (1994). The development of modal understanding: Piaget's possibilities and necessity. New Ideas in Psychology, 12, 73-87.
Smith, L. (1995a). Introduction to Piaget's Sociological Studies. In J. Piaget, Sociological studies (pp. 1-22). London: Routledge.
Smith, L. (1995b). Commentary on Vygotsky's criticisms of language and thought of the child and judgment and reasoning in the child. New Ideas in Psychology, 13, 325-340
Smith, L. (1996a). With knowledge in mind: Novel transformation of the learner or transformation of novel knowledge. Human Development, 39, 257-263.
Smith, L. (1996b). The social construction of rational understanding. In A. Tryphon, & J. Vonèche (Eds.), Piaget-Vygotsky: The social genesis of thought (pp. 107-123). Hove: Psychology Press.
Spelke, E. (1991). Physical knowledge in infancy. In S. Carey, & R. Gelman (Eds.), The epigenesis of mind: Essays on biology and cognition (pp. 133-169). Hilsdalle, NJ: Erlbaum.
]]> Staats, A. (1991). Unified positivism and unification psychology. American Psychologist, 46, 899-912.Sternberg, R. (1997). Fads in psychology: What can we do. APA Monitor, 28, 19.
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. (1994). A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Thelen, E., & Ulrich, B. (1991). Hidden skills: a dynamic systems analysis of treadmill stepping during the first year. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 56, 1-103.
Tryphon, A., & Vonèche, J. (Eds.) (1996). Piaget-Vygotsky: The social genesis of thought. Hove: Psychology Press.
van der Maas, H., & Molenaar, P. (1992). Stagewise cognitive growth: An application of catastrophe theory. Psychological Review, 99, 395-417.
van der Veer, R. (1996). Structure and development: Reflections by Vygotsky. In A. Tryphon, & J. Vonèche (Eds.), Piaget-Vygotsky: The social genesis of thought (pp. 45-56). Hove: Psychology Press.
van Geert, P. (1987). The structure of developmental theories: A generative approach. Human Development, 30, 160-177.
van Geert, P. (1991). A dynamic systems model of cognitive and language growth. Psychological Review, 98, 3-53.
van Geert, P. (1994). Vygotskian dynamics of development. Human Development, 37, 346-365.
]]> van Geert, P. (1997). Que será, será: Determinism and nonlinear dynamic model building in development. In A. Fogel, M. Lyra, & J. Valsiner (Eds), Dynamics and indeterminism in developmental and social processes (pp. 13-38). Mahway, NJ: Erlbaum.Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1981). Thought and language. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Wallon, H. (1947). L'étude psychologique et sociologique de l'enfant [The psychological and sociological study of the child]. Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, 3, 43-23.
Ward, S., Byrnes, J., & Overton, W. (1990). Organization of knowledge and conditional reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 832-837.
Wertsch, J. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wertsch, J. (1996). The role of abstract rationality in Vygotsky's image of the mind. In A. Tryphon, & J. Vonèche (Eds.), Piaget-Vygotsky: the social genesis of the thought (pp. 25-43). Hove: Taylor & Francis.
Winer, G. (1980). Class-inclusion reasoning in children: A review of the empirical literature. Child Development, 51, 309-328.
Winegar, L., & Valsiner, J. (Eds.) (1992). Children's development within the social context. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wittgenstein, L. (1859). On certainty. New York: Harper & Row. Wittgenstein, L. (1959). Philosophical investigations (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
]]> Wozniak, R., & Fischer, K. (Eds.) (1993). Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific environments. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Zeaman, D. (1959). Skinner's theory of teaching machines. In E. Galanter (Ed.), Automatic teaching: The state of art (pp. 167-176). New York: Wiley.
(*) Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Universidade, 1600 Lisboa, E-mail: Orlando@fc.ul.pt ]]>