<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0870-8231</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Análise Psicológica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Aná. Psicológica]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0870-8231</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[ISPA-Instituto Universitário]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0870-82312004000200001</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="pt"><![CDATA[Conhecimentos, modelos, e raciocínio condicional]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Quelhas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ana Cristina]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Johnson-Laird]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P. N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,ISPA - Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Lisboa ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Princeton University  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>USA</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2004</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2004</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>22</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>309</fpage>
<lpage>317</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0870-82312004000200001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0870-82312004000200001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0870-82312004000200001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="pt"><p><![CDATA[A interpretação de frases, e em particular a interpretação de frases condicionais, pode ser modulada quer pelo significado das mesmas, pelos referentes, ou pelos conhecimentos gerais. O presente estudo examina o efeito pragmático dos conhecimentos no raciocínio a partir de pares de premissas condicionais. De acordo com a teoria dos modelos, inferências com a mesma forma, mas com conteúdos diferentes, deverão gerar um padrão de inferências diferente. Consideremos as seguintes premissas: Se a Maria não está em Paris, então ela está em França. Se a Maria está em França, então ele é estudante. A primeira premissa explora a inclusão espacial (Paris é em França), pelo que numa possibilidade Maria não está em Paris mas está em França, e noutra possibilidade Maria está em Paris e portanto está também em França. Assim, é impossível a Maria não estar em França, pelo que os indivíduos tenderão a inferir a partir da segunda premissa que ela é estudante. Em contraste, se considerarmos as seguintes premissas, que tem a mesma forma que as do exemplo anterior, mas um conteúdo diferente: Se o João não está em Roma, então ele está em França. Se o João está em França, então ele é estudante. A primeira premissa explora a exclusão espacial (Roma não é em França), pelo que numa possibilidade João não está em Roma e está em França, e noutra possibilidade ele está em Roma e não está em França. Assim, os indivíduos não têm nenhuma base para a inferência categórica de que ele é estudante, e deverão tender para a conclusão condicional de que Se o João não está em Roma então ele é estudante. Os problemas de inclusão geram menos possibilidades do que os problemas de exclusão, pelo que a teoria dos modelos prediz que os problemas de inclusão deverão ser mais fáceis do que os problemas de exclusão. O artigo relata duas experiências que corroboram as previsões da teoria dos modelos. Na Experiência 1, os participantes dão mais conclusões categóricas nas premissas de inclusão, mas apenas algumas conclusões condicionais nas premissas de exclusão. De facto, com as premissas de exclusão, obtém-se muitas conclusões outras. Para evitar isso fizemos uma segunda experiência, onde os participantes escolhem a conclusão a partir de quatro que são fornecidas: conclusão categórica; conclusão condicional; ambas; nenhuma (ao contrário da Experiência 1, onde os participantes escreviam a conclusão). A Experiência 2 replica a superioridade de conclusões categóricas com as premissas de inclusão, e encontra a superioridade de conclusões condicionais com as premissas de exclusão.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Meaning, reference, and general knowledge can all modulate the interpretation of assertions, and in particular the interpretation of conditionals. The present study examines the pragmatic effects of knowledge on reasoning from pairs of conditional premises. According to the theory of mental models, inferences of the same form but different content should yield different patterns of inference. Consider the following premises, e.g.: If Maria is not in Paris, then she's in France. If Maria is in France, then she's a student. The first premise exploits a spatial inclusion (Paris is in France), and so in one possibility Maria is not in Paris but is in France, and in another possibility Maria is in Paris and so she is also in France. Hence, it is impossible for Maria not to be in France, and so individuals should tend to infer from the second premise that she is a student. In contrast, consider the following premises that have the same form as those in the previous example, but a different content: If João is not in Roma, then he's in France. If João is in France, then he's a student. The first premise exploits a spatial exclusion (Roma is not in France), and so in one possibility João is not in Roma and is in France, and in another possibility he is Roma and so not in France. Hence, individuals have no grounds for the categorical inference that he is a student, and they should tend to infer the conditional conclusion, i.e., that If João is not in Roma, then he's a student. The inclusion problems yield fewer possibilities than the exclusion problems, and so the model theory predicts that the inclusion problems should be easier than the exclusion problems. The paper reports two experiments that corroborated the predictions of the model theory. In Experiment 1, participants drew more categorical conclusion in the inclusion premises, but only a few drew the conditional conclusion from the exclusion premises. In fact, with de exclusion premises, we obtain many "other conclusions"- . To avoid this we have made a second experiment, were participants chose a conclusion from four possibilities: the categorical conclusion, a conditional conclusion, both conclusions, or neither, instead of what happens in Experiment 1, were participants drew the conclusions for themselves from the premises. Experiment 2 replicated the superiority of categorical conclusion in the inclusion premises, and found the superiority of conditional conclusion in the exclusion premises.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Raciocínio condicional]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[conhecimentos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[modelos mentais]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Conditional reasoning]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[knowledge]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[mental models]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p><b>Conhecimentos, modelos, e racioc&iacute;nio condicional (<a href="#1">*</a>)</b>    <a name="top1"></a> </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p align="right"><I>ANA CRISTINA QUELHAS (<a href="#2">**</a>) <a name="top2"></a></I></p>       <P   align="right" ><I>P. N. JOHNSON-LAIRD(<a href="#3">***</a>) <a name="top3"></a></I></P >     <p>&nbsp;</P >     <P   align="center" >RESUMO </P >     <p>A interpreta&ccedil;&atilde;o de frases, e em particular a interpreta&ccedil;&atilde;o    de frases condicionais, pode ser modulada quer pelo significado das mesmas,    pelos referentes, ou pelos conhecimentos gerais. O presente estudo examina o    efeito pragm&aacute;tico dos conhecimentos no racioc&iacute;nio a partir de    pares de premissas condicionais. De acordo com a teoria dos modelos, infer&ecirc;ncias    com a mesma forma, mas com conte&uacute;dos diferentes, dever&atilde;o gerar    um padr&atilde;o de infer&ecirc;ncias diferente. Consideremos as seguintes premissas:  </P >     <p>Se a Maria n&atilde;o est&aacute; em Paris, ent&atilde;o ela est&aacute; em    Fran&ccedil;a. Se a Maria est&aacute; em Fran&ccedil;a, ent&atilde;o ele &eacute;    estudante. A primeira premissa explora a inclus&atilde;o espacial </P >     <p>(Paris &eacute; em Fran&ccedil;a), pelo que numa possibilidade Maria n&atilde;o    est&aacute; em Paris mas est&aacute; em Fran&ccedil;a, e noutra possibilidade    Maria est&aacute; em Paris e portanto est&aacute; tamb&eacute;m em Fran&ccedil;a.    Assim, &eacute; imposs&iacute;vel a Maria n&atilde;o estar em Fran&ccedil;a,    pelo que os indiv&iacute;duos tender&atilde;o a inferir a partir da segunda    premissa que ela &eacute; estudante. Em contraste, se considerarmos as seguintes    premissas, que tem a mesma forma que as do exemplo anterior, mas um conte&uacute;do    diferente: </P >     <p>Se o Jo&atilde;o n&atilde;o est&aacute; em Roma, ent&atilde;o ele est&aacute;    em Fran&ccedil;a. </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Se o Jo&atilde;o est&aacute; em Fran&ccedil;a, ent&atilde;o ele &eacute; estudante.  </P >     <p>A primeira premissa explora a exclus&atilde;o espacial (Roma n&atilde;o &eacute;    em Fran&ccedil;a), pelo que numa possibilidade Jo&atilde;o n&atilde;o est&aacute;    em Roma e est&aacute; em Fran&ccedil;a, e noutra possibilidade ele est&aacute;    em Roma e n&atilde;o est&aacute; em Fran&ccedil;a. Assim, os indiv&iacute;duos    n&atilde;o t&ecirc;m nenhuma base para a infer&ecirc;ncia categ&oacute;rica    de que ele &eacute; estudante, e dever&atilde;o tender para a conclus&atilde;o    condicional de que Se o Jo&atilde;o n&atilde;o est&aacute; em Roma ent&atilde;o    ele &eacute; estudante. Os problemas de inclus&atilde;o geram menos possibilidades    do que os problemas de exclus&atilde;o, pelo que a teoria dos modelos prediz    que os problemas de inclus&atilde;o dever&atilde;o ser mais f&aacute;ceis do    que os problemas de exclus&atilde;o. </P >     <p>O artigo relata duas experi&ecirc;ncias que corroboram as previs&otilde;es da    teoria dos modelos. Na Experi&ecirc;ncia 1, os participantes d&atilde;o mais    conclus&otilde;es categ&oacute;ricas nas premissas de inclus&atilde;o, mas apenas    algumas conclus&otilde;es condicionais nas premissas de exclus&atilde;o. De    facto, com as premissas de exclus&atilde;o, obt&eacute;m-se muitas conclus&otilde;es    outras. Para evitar isso fizemos uma segunda experi&ecirc;ncia, onde os participantes    escolhem a conclus&atilde;o a partir de quatro que s&atilde;o fornecidas: conclus&atilde;o    categ&oacute;rica; conclus&atilde;o condicional; ambas; nenhuma (ao contr&aacute;rio    da Experi&ecirc;ncia 1, onde os participantes escreviam a conclus&atilde;o).    A Experi&ecirc;ncia 2 replica a superioridade de conclus&otilde;es categ&oacute;ricas    com as premissas de inclus&atilde;o, e encontra a superioridade de conclus&otilde;es    condicionais com as premissas de exclus&atilde;o. </P >     <p><I>Palavras-chave</I>: Racioc&iacute;nio condicional, conhecimentos, modelos    mentais. </P >     <p>&nbsp;</P >     <P   align="center" >ABSTRACT </P >     <p>Meaning, reference, and general knowledge can all modulate the interpretation    of assertions, and in particular the interpretation of conditionals. The present    study examines the pragmatic effects of knowledge on reasoning from pairs of    conditional premises. According to the theory of mental models, inferences of    the same form but different content should yield different patterns of inference.    Consider the following premises, e.g.: </P >     <p>If Maria is not in Paris, then she's in France. </P >     <p>If Maria is in France, then she's a student. </P >     <p>The first premise exploits a spatial inclusion (Paris is in France), and so in    one possibility Maria is not in Paris but is in France, and in another possibility    Maria is in Paris and so she is also in France. Hence, it is impossible for    Maria not to be in France, and so individuals should tend to infer from the    second premise that she is a student. In contrast, consider the following premises    that have the same form as those in the previous example, but a different content:  </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>If Jo&atilde;o is not in Roma, then he's in France. </P >     <p>If Jo&atilde;o is in France, then he's a student. </P >     <p>The first premise exploits a spatial exclusion (Roma is not in France), and    so in one possibility Jo&atilde;o is not in Roma and is in France, and in another    possibility he is Roma and so not in France. Hence, individuals have no grounds    for the categorical inference that he is a student, and they should tend to    infer the conditional conclusion, i.e., that If Jo&atilde;o is not in Roma,    then he's a student. The inclusion problems yield fewer possibilities than the    exclusion problems, and so the model theory predicts that the inclusion problems    should be easier than the exclusion problems. </P >     <p>The paper reports two experiments that corroborated the predictions of the    model theory. In Experiment 1, participants drew more categorical conclusion    in the inclusion premises, but only a few drew the conditional conclusion from    the exclusion premises. In fact, with de exclusion premises, we obtain many    &quot;other conclusions&quot;- . To avoid this we have made a second experiment,    were participants chose a conclusion from four possibilities: the categorical    conclusion, a conditional conclusion, both conclusions, or neither, instead    of what happens in Experiment 1, were participants drew the conclusions for    themselves from the premises. Experiment 2 replicated the superiority of categorical    conclusion in the inclusion premises, and found the superiority of conditional    conclusion in the exclusion premises. </P >     <p><I>Key words</I>: Conditional reasoning, knowledge, mental models. </P >        <p>&nbsp;</P >     <p>Texto completo dispon&iacute;vel apenas em PDF.</P >     <p>Full text only available in PDF format.</p>     <p>&nbsp;</P >     <p>&nbsp;</P >      ]]></body>
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Harmondsworth: Penguin. </P >     &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000055&pid=S0870-8231200400020000100022&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p>&nbsp;</P >     <P   align="center" ></P >     <P   align="center" ></P >        <p><a name="1"></a>(<a href="#top1">*</a>) Os resultados das experi&ecirc;ncias    aqui apresentadas foram parcialmente apresentados no XIII Meeting of the European    Society of Cognitive Psychology (Universidade de Granada, 17-20 Setembro de    2003). Esta investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o foi parcialmente financiada pelo Programa    Europeu POCTI/PSI/42215/2001, FEDER - FCT, e pelo National Science Foundation,    Grant BCS-0076 287, to study strategies in reasoning. </p>     <p><a name="2"></a>(<a href="#top2">**</a>) Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada,    Lisboa. </P >     <p><a name="3"></a>(<a href="#top3">***</a>) Princeton University, USA. </P >       <p>&nbsp;</P >    ]]></body>
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