<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0870-8231</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Análise Psicológica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Aná. Psicológica]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0870-8231</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[ISPA-Instituto Universitário]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0870-82312013000400006</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="pt"><![CDATA[Estilos parentais e relações de vinculação]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cardoso]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Jordana]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Veríssimo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Manuela]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,ISPA - Instituto Universitário Unidade de Investigação em Psicologia Cognitiva, do Desenvolvimento e da Educação ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2013</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2013</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>31</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<fpage>393</fpage>
<lpage>406</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0870-82312013000400006&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0870-82312013000400006&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0870-82312013000400006&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="pt"><p><![CDATA[A qualidade dos cuidados parentais, no contexto das relações precoces, tem sido apontada como fundamental para o desenvolvimento das crianças. No presente artigo abordamos a tipologia dos estilos educativos parentais proposta por Baumrind, e o impacto dos estilos parentais no desenvolvimento infantil. Seguidamente, são explicitados conceitos como o de relação de vinculação, base-segura e sensibilidade parental, com referência também à investigação que se debruça sobre o impacto das relações de vinculação no desenvolvimento. Finalmente, destacam-se os pontos em comum entre estes dois domínios da parentalidade, os estudos encontrados e uma reflexão sobre o futuro da investigação neste campo.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The quality of parental care in the context of early relationships has been identified as critical to children&#8217;s development. In the present article we present the typology of parenting styles proposed by Baumrind and the impact of parenting styles on child development. In the second part of the paper we explore the concepts of attachment relationship, secure-base and parental sensitivity, as well as the research focusing on the impact of attachment on social development. Finally, we highlight the common points between these two domains of parenting, the studies about attachment and parenting styles and we raise some questions about future research.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Vinculação]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Estilos parentais]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Attachment]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Parenting styles]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <P><b>Estilos parentais e rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o </B></b></p>     <P><b>Jordana Cardoso<Sup>*</Sup>; Manuela Ver&iacute;ssimo<sup>* </sup></b></p>     <P><sup>* </sup>U.I.P.C.D.E., ISPA &#8212; Instituto Universit&aacute;rio</p>     <P><a name="top0"></a><a href="#0">Correspond&ecirc;ncia</a></p>     <P>&nbsp;</p>     <P><b>RESUMO</b></p>     <P>A qualidade dos cuidados parentais, no contexto das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es precoces, tem sido apontada como fundamental para o desenvolvimento das crian&ccedil;as. No presente artigo abordamos a tipologia dos estilos educativos parentais proposta por Baumrind, e o impacto dos estilos parentais no desenvolvimento infantil. Seguidamente, s&atilde;o explicitados conceitos como o de rela&ccedil;&atilde;o de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, base-segura e sensibilidade parental, com refer&ecirc;ncia tamb&eacute;m &agrave; investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o que se debru&ccedil;a sobre o impacto das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o no desenvolvimento. Finalmente, destacam-se os pontos em comum entre estes dois dom&iacute;nios da parentalidade, os estudos encontrados e uma reflex&atilde;o sobre o futuro da investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o neste campo</p>     <P><B>Palavras-chave:</B> Vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, Estilos parentais.</p>     <P>&nbsp;</p>     <P><b>ABSTRACT</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P>The quality of parental care in the context of early relationships has been identified as critical to children&rsquo;s development. In the present article we present the typology of parenting styles proposed by Baumrind and the impact of parenting styles on child development. In the second part of the paper we explore the concepts of attachment relationship, secure-base and parental sensitivity, as well as the research focusing on the impact of attachment on social development. Finally, we highlight the common points between these two domains of parenting, the studies about attachment and parenting styles and we raise some questions about future research.</p>     <P><B>Key-words: </B>Attachment, Parenting styles.</p>     <P>&nbsp;</p>     <P>As fam&iacute;lias, como primeiro contexto de socializa&ccedil;&atilde;o, desempenham um papel fundamental no comportamento e desenvolvimento das crian&ccedil;as (Baumrind, 1991; Parke & Buriel, 2006). As rela&ccedil;&otilde;es precoces t&ecirc;m sido identificadas como fundamentais para o desenvolvimento da crian&ccedil;a (Baumrind, 1978; Bornstein, 2002, 2006; Maccoby, 2000; Sroufe, 2000), sendo a qualidade dos cuidados parentais apontada frequentemente como a vari&aacute;vel mais importante para o desenvolvimento infantil (Sroufe, 2002).</p>     <P>ESTILOS EDUCATIVOS PARENTAIS</p>     <P>A investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o tem mostrado diversos resultados que apontam para a import&acirc;ncia das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es precoces e das atitudes e comportamentos parentais neste &acirc;mbito, nomeadamente no que respeita aos padr&otilde;es educativos dos pais. Numa abordagem tipol&oacute;gica, Baumrind prestou um contributo fundamental para o debate em torno da influ&ecirc;ncia dos pais no desenvolvimento das crian&ccedil;as, com a sua proposta de tr&ecirc;s estilos parentais: Autorit&aacute;rio, autorizante e permissivo (Baumrind, 1967, 1971; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Parke & Buriel, 2006).</p>     <P>Na defini&ccedil;&atilde;o da autora, os pais com um estilo autorit&aacute;rio apresentam valores reduzidos de afectividade e elevados n&iacute;veis de controlo e restritividade. Exercem um controlo psicol&oacute;gico r&iacute;gido, desencorajam a independ&ecirc;ncia e individualidade da crian&ccedil;a e as trocas verbais entre eles. Tentam influenciar, controlar e avaliar o comportamento e atitudes dos filhos de acordo com um padr&atilde;o absoluto, d&atilde;o valor &agrave; obedi&ecirc;ncia e favorecem a puni&ccedil;&atilde;o, e tentam incutir &agrave; crian&ccedil;a valores tradicionais como o respeito pela autoridade, o trabalho, tradi&ccedil;&atilde;o e preserva&ccedil;&atilde;o da ordem (Baumrind, 1966, 1967, 1971).</p>     <P>Numa configura&ccedil;&atilde;o autorizante (o estilo ideal para Baumrind), os pais exercem um controlo firme e s&atilde;o afectuosos, calorosos e responsivos &agrave;s necessidades das crian&ccedil;as. Encorajam a comunica&ccedil;&atilde;o aberta e as trocas verbais entre si e os seus filhos, e promovem a sua autonomia e individualidade. Partilham as raz&otilde;es das decis&otilde;es tomadas, reconhecem os seus direitos e os direitos da crian&ccedil;a, tentam orientar as suas actividades de modo racional e t&ecirc;m uma atitude de confronto face &agrave;s diverg&ecirc;ncias, sem exagerar nas restri&ccedil;&otilde;es. Afirmam os seus valores de modo claro, esperando das crian&ccedil;as que cumpram as normas que lhes dizem respeito e partilham com elas as raz&otilde;es das decis&otilde;es. Estes pais t&ecirc;m n&iacute;veis elevados de exig&ecirc;ncia mas tamb&eacute;m de afectividade e promovem um ambiente intelectualmente estimulante para os seus filhos. Os pais autorizantes est&atilde;o altamente comprometidos e investem bastante na educa&ccedil;&atilde;o dos seus filhos (Baumrind, 1967, 1971, 1993). Baumrind sugere que este estilo aumenta a efic&aacute;cia da parentalidade, alterando as caracter&iacute;sticas das crian&ccedil;as que, por sua vez, fortalecem as capacidades dos pais como agentes de socializa&ccedil;&atilde;o (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).</p>     <P>Os pais com um estilo permissivo t&ecirc;m uma atitude tolerante e de aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o face aos impulsos, desejos e ac&ccedil;&otilde;es da crian&ccedil;a e evitam tomar posi&ccedil;&otilde;es de autoridade e impor controlo ou restri&ccedil;&otilde;es aos seus filhos. S&atilde;o pais pouco punitivos, permitem &agrave;s crian&ccedil;as regular o seu pr&oacute;prio comportamento e tomar as suas pr&oacute;prias decis&otilde;es sempre que poss&iacute;vel, e exigem poucas regras de rotina (Baumrind, 1967, 1971). Tanto os pais com um estilo permissivo como os pais com um estilo autorit&aacute;rio fazem, segundo Baumrind, poucas exig&ecirc;ncias de maturidade e comunicam de modo ineficaz (Baumrind, 1967).</p>     <P>Maccoby e Martin (1983) distinguiram os estilos parentais em fun&ccedil;&atilde;o das dimens&otilde;es exig&ecirc;ncia e responsividade, com os pais autorizantes a manifestarem n&iacute;veis elevados nas duas dimens&otilde;es e os autorit&aacute;rios apenas na dimens&atilde;o exig&ecirc;ncia, com responsividade reduzida. Os autores distinguem tamb&eacute;m dois padr&otilde;es distintos de baixa exig&ecirc;ncia, sendo os pais do tipo indulgente responsivos mas pouco exigentes e tendo os pais do tipo negligente valores reduzidos nas duas dimens&otilde;es (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Para al&eacute;m de Dornbusch e colaboradores (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987), que fizeram refer&ecirc;ncia aos estilos indulgente e negligente dentro da configura&ccedil;&atilde;o permissiva, tamb&eacute;m Baumrind assinalou as dimens&otilde;es exig&ecirc;ncia e responsividade, bem como o estilo rejeitante-negligenciador, enquadrado num padr&atilde;o n&atilde;o-envolvido e caracterizado igualmente por baixa exig&ecirc;ncia e responsividade (Baumrind, 1989, 1991).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P>Assim, a responsividade refere-se, segundo Baumrind (1991; Baumrind, Larzelere, & Owens, 2010) &agrave; medida em que os pais intencionalmente promovem a individualidade, auto-regula&ccedil;&atilde;o e auto-afirma&ccedil;&atilde;o da crian&ccedil;a atrav&eacute;s do apoio, afecto, suporte emocional, complac&ecirc;ncia e sintonia com as necessidades e exig&ecirc;ncias da crian&ccedil;a. Para Maccoby e Martin (1983), a responsividade pode ser referente ao refor&ccedil;o contingente, controlo ou &agrave; sensibilidade e adapta&ccedil;&atilde;o aos sinais, estados e necessidades da crian&ccedil;a. A dimens&atilde;o exig&ecirc;ncia remete para as exig&ecirc;ncias de maturidade, supervis&atilde;o, disciplina e prontid&atilde;o para confrontar a crian&ccedil;a que desobedece, no sentido da sua integra&ccedil;&atilde;o no contexto familiar (Baumrind, 1991; Baumrind, Larzelere, & Owens, 2010).</p>     <P>ESTILOS PARENTAIS E RESULTADOS DESENVOLVIMENTAIS</p>     <P>As crian&ccedil;as expostas a um estilo autorit&aacute;rio tendem a ter valores mais reduzidos no autoconceito, a ser mais apreensivas, receosas, inseguras, agressivas, dependentes, socialmente inibidas, com dificuldades na regula&ccedil;&atilde;o das emo&ccedil;&otilde;es e insatisfa&ccedil;&atilde;o, tendem tamb&eacute;m a ter mais comportamentos de externaliza&ccedil;&atilde;o e delinqu&ecirc;ncia, e parecem ter n&iacute;veis reduzidos de responsabilidade social (Baumrind, 1967, 1971; Baumrind & Black, 1967; Brar, 2003; Dornbusch et al., 1987; Hart, Newell, & Olsen, 2003; Hart, Nelson, Robinson, Olsen, & McNeily-Choque, 1998; Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991; Nix et al., 1999; Odubote, 2008; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992). As raparigas apresentaram-se com n&iacute;veis elevados de assertividade social e, quando comparadas com os filhos de pais autorizantes, parecem ser mais dependentes e dominadoras e os filhos mais hostis e resistentes &agrave;s directrizes do adulto (Baumrind 1967, 1971, 1989). Alguns autores encontraram ainda associa&ccedil;&otilde;es negativas entre este estilo e as compet&ecirc;ncias acad&eacute;micas e a adapta&ccedil;&atilde;o escolar (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Shumow, Vandell, & Posner, 1998) e associa&ccedil;&otilde;es positivas com sintomas depressivos (Darling, McCartney, & Taylor, 2006). Este estilo surge tamb&eacute;m relacionado com afecto negativo (Lagac&eacute;-S&eacute;guin & d&rsquo;Entremont, 2006).</p>     <P>J&aacute; uma configura&ccedil;&atilde;o permissiva parece comprometer o desenvolvimento acad&eacute;mico e social das crian&ccedil;as, nomeadamente no que respeita &agrave; sua assertividade e responsabilidade social, demonstrando dificuldades na autonomia, regula&ccedil;&atilde;o das emo&ccedil;&otilde;es, baixos n&iacute;veis de auto-controlo, auto-confian&ccedil;a, auto-estima, persist&ecirc;ncia e de realiza&ccedil;&atilde;o, imaturidade, depend&ecirc;ncia, impulsividade e agressividade, bem como mais comportamentos disruptivos (Baumrind, 1967, 1971, 1977, 1989; Cole & Cole, 2001; Dornbusch et al., 1987; Lamborn et al., 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Sommer, 2007). O estilo permissivo parece tamb&eacute;m estar relacionado com o afecto negativo (Lagac&eacute;-S&eacute;guin & d&rsquo;Entremont, 2006). Em compara&ccedil;&atilde;o com o estilo autorit&aacute;rio e o estilo autorizante, estas crian&ccedil;as revelam n&iacute;veis reduzidos de autonomia, auto-estima, auto-controlo e capacidade de explora&ccedil;&atilde;o. Quando comparados com os filhos de pais autorizantes, os rapazes s&atilde;o tamb&eacute;m menos orientados para a realiza&ccedil;&atilde;o e as raparigas menos assertivas do ponto de vista social (Baumrind, 1971, 1977, 1989).</p>     <P>Os filhos de pais autorizantes parecem ser crian&ccedil;as com melhor desempenho acad&eacute;mico, mais competentes e pr&oacute;-sociais e ter menos problemas de internaliza&ccedil;&atilde;o e externaliza&ccedil;&atilde;o (Baumrind, 1966, 1971, 1977, 1989; Dornbusch et al., 1987; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Lamborn et al, 1991; Steinberg, Blatt-Eisengart, & Cauffman, 2006; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994) e menor tend&ecirc;ncia para a internaliza&ccedil;&atilde;o de sintomas (Williams et al., 2009). As raparigas parecem ser mais independentes, intencionais, dominantes e orientadas para a realiza&ccedil;&atilde;o e os rapazes socialmente mais respons&aacute;veis, isto &eacute;, demonstram uma atitude amig&aacute;vel e cooperante com pares e adultos, s&atilde;o socialmente maduros e altru&iacute;stas (Baumrind, 1971, 1989, 1991). Um estilo parental autorizante parece, ent&atilde;o, promover resultados mais favor&aacute;veis no desenvolvimento das crian&ccedil;as, que apresentam menores n&iacute;veis de problemas de comportamento, ansiedade e depress&atilde;o, maior n&uacute;mero de comportamentos explorat&oacute;rios, maior assertividade, auto-confian&ccedil;a, auto-estima, compet&ecirc;ncia social, auto-regula&ccedil;&atilde;o, criatividade, persist&ecirc;ncia, auto-controlo, e mais compet&ecirc;ncias acad&eacute;micas e de lideran&ccedil;a (Baumrind, 1966, 1967, 1971, 1991, 1993; Baumrind & Black, 1967; Eiden, Edwards, & Leonard, 2007; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Lamborn et al., 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Reitman & Gross, 1997; Steinberg, Mounts, Lamborn, & Dornbusch, 1991; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994) e avaliam-se a si pr&oacute;prias como mais competentes ao n&iacute;vel social e acad&eacute;mico (Lamborn et al., 1991).</p>     <P>Assim, elevada responsividade parece estar associada a resultados positivos quando conjugada com elevada exig&ecirc;ncia (no estilo autorizante) mas, quando conjugada com baixos n&iacute;veis de exig&ecirc;ncia (como na configura&ccedil;&atilde;o permissiva), parece ter resultados menos ben&eacute;ficos ao n&iacute;vel desenvolvimental (Baumrind, 1967, 1971, 1991). Os resultados desenvolvimentais s&atilde;o tamb&eacute;m ben&eacute;ficos quando a exig&ecirc;ncia passa n&atilde;o s&icirc; por um refor&ccedil;o rigoroso mas igualmente por padr&otilde;es de comportamento adequados ao desenvolvimento, ao contr&aacute;rio de uma exig&ecirc;ncia que passe por tipos de afirma&ccedil;&atilde;o de poder coercivos-autorit&aacute;rios (como a disciplina arbitr&aacute;ria, controlo psicol&oacute;gico ou cr&iacute;ticas verbais hostis), cujos efeitos sobre as crian&ccedil;as s&atilde;o raramente ben&eacute;ficos (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Owens, 2010).</p>     <P>Como resposta a algumas quest&otilde;es levantadas ao longo dos anos desde a apresenta&ccedil;&atilde;o da tipologia de Baumrind, nomeadamente no que respeita &agrave;s diferen&ccedil;as nos resultados obtidos relativamente &agrave;s especificidades culturais, v&aacute;rios autores (Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Mize & Pettit, 1997; Stevenson-Hinde, 1998) t&ecirc;m tamb&eacute;m trabalhado a identifica&ccedil;&atilde;o e distin&ccedil;&atilde;o emp&iacute;rica entre pr&aacute;ticas e estilos parentais. Darling e Steinberg (1993) prop&otilde;em que as pr&aacute;ticas parentais englobam os comportamentos definidos por conte&uacute;dos espec&iacute;ficos e objectivos de socializa&ccedil;&atilde;o, sendo avaliadas em termos de conte&uacute;dos e frequ&ecirc;ncia do comportamento, e operacionalizadas a diferentes n&iacute;veis consoante a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o colocada em hip&oacute;tese entre o objectivo de socializa&ccedil;&atilde;o e o resultado desenvolvimental. J&aacute; os estilos parentais s&atilde;o definidos como uma constela&ccedil;&atilde;o de atitudes face &agrave; crian&ccedil;a, que lhe s&atilde;o comunicadas, e que criam um clima emocional no qual os comportamentos dos pais s&atilde;o expressos. Estes incluem comportamentos espec&iacute;ficos, dirigidos para um objectivo e atrav&eacute;s dos quais os pais exercem as suas obriga&ccedil;&otilde;es (pr&aacute;ticas parentais) e comportamentos n&atilde;o dirigidos para um objectivo ou definidos por um objectivo, como o tom de voz ou a linguagem corporal. As pr&aacute;ticas podem, ent&atilde;o, ser definidas enquanto estrat&eacute;gias espec&iacute;ficas e os estilos parentais como o clima ou atitude global de um vasto leque de interac&ccedil;&otilde;es pai-crian&ccedil;a (Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Mize & Pettit, 1997; Stevenson-Hinde, 1998).</p>     <P>RELA&Ccedil;&Otilde;ES DE VINCULA&Ccedil;&Atilde;O</p>     <P>Uma rela&ccedil;&atilde;o de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o pode ser definida como o forte la&ccedil;o afectivo, estabelecido por volta dos 7/8 meses, que liga a crian&ccedil;a a uma ou mais figuras est&aacute;veis e tidas como &uacute;nicas, ao longo da sua vida. Estas rela&ccedil;&otilde;es s&atilde;o constru&iacute;das no contexto das interac&ccedil;&otilde;es entre a crian&ccedil;a e a figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o e funcionam como um sistema de controlo comportamental que regula os comportamentos de proximidade e de explora&ccedil;&atilde;o do meio, isto &eacute;, a seguran&ccedil;a na vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o reflecte-se pela forma como as crian&ccedil;as organizam os seus comportamentos de modo a manter um equil&iacute;brio entre a sua necessidades de protec&ccedil;&atilde;o e conforto e a sua necessidade de explorar o ambiente ao seu redor (Bowlby, 1971; Monteiro, Ver&iacute;ssimo, Vaughn, Santos, & Fernandes, 2008). A figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o funciona ent&atilde;o como base segura &#8212; a crian&ccedil;a afasta-se e regressa para junto dela, periodicamente, para brincar ou estabelecer um breve contacto, afastando-se novamente para explorar objectos ou interagir com outras pessoas (Ainsworth, 1967; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1971, 1989).</p>     <P>Quando o sistema de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o &eacute; activado devido &agrave;s necessidades sentidas pela crian&ccedil;a, vai despertar o sistema de presta&ccedil;&atilde;o de cuidados do cuidador, que ir&aacute; ao encontro das necessidades da crian&ccedil;a (Marvin, Cooper, Hoffman, & Powell, 2002). Diferen&ccedil;as individuais na organiza&ccedil;&atilde;o dos comportamentos de base segura est&atilde;o fortemente relacionadas com as respostas comportamentais da figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o ao n&iacute;vel da sua sensibilidade aos sinais da crian&ccedil;a, da aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o do papel de cuidador e das necessidades da crian&ccedil;a, da coopera&ccedil;&atilde;o com os comportamentos da crian&ccedil;a e da disponibilidade nas interac&ccedil;&otilde;es di&aacute;rias com a crian&ccedil;a (Ainsworth et al., 1978). &Egrave; a percep&ccedil;&atilde;o que a crian&ccedil;a tem do suporte dispon&iacute;vel que aparece mais directamente associada &agrave; seguran&ccedil;a na figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, ao permitir a explora&ccedil;&atilde;o activa do mundo &agrave; sua volta (Booth, Rubin, & Rose-Krasnor, 1998; Rubin, Hymel, Mills, & Rose-Krasnor, 1991; Sroufe, 2000). M&atilde;es de crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras s&atilde;o frequentemente mais responsivas e sens&iacute;veis (Ainsworth, 1982; Ainsworth et al., 1978).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P>De facto, a seguran&ccedil;a das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o est&aacute; frequentemente associada a uma parentalidade responsiva e sens&iacute;vel (Ainsworth & Bell, 1969; Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bell & Ainsworth, 1972). Ainsworth (Ainsworth & Bell, 1969; Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton, 1974; Ainsworth et al., 1978) introduziu o conceito de sensibilidade (tamb&eacute;m referido, por vezes, como responsividade sens&iacute;vel (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991; Ainsworth et al., 1978; De Wolff & Van IJzendoorn, 1997; Fearon et al., 2006) como a capacidade que a figura cuidadora tem de perceber e interpretar os sinais da crian&ccedil;a, respondendo de forma pronta e adequada de acordo com as suas necessidades desenvolvimentais. Tal como outros autores (Bowlby, 1971; Pederson & Moran, 1995; van IJzendoorn et al., 2007), assinala a sensibilidade da figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o como uma caracter&iacute;stica de grande import&acirc;ncia no desenvolvimento de rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras.</p>     <P>Bornstein (2002) refere-se &agrave; responsividade como um componente fundamental    na parentalidade, na medida em que, ao responderem pronta e adequadamente e    de modo confi&aacute;vel aos sinais dos seus filhos, os pais transmitem-lhes    a mensagem de que os mesmos podem confiar neles e na sua disponibilidade. J&aacute;    De Wolff e van IJzendoorn (1997) definiram responsividade (<i>contiguity of    response</i>) como conceito distinto do de sensibilidade, na medida em que o    definem apenas pela prontid&atilde;o ou frequ&ecirc;ncia de respostas da m&atilde;e    aos sinais da crian&ccedil;a, independentemente se esses comportamentos s&atilde;o    apropriados ou n&atilde;o, ou seja, sem uma avalia&ccedil;&atilde;o qualitativa    do comportamento da m&atilde;e. No entanto, o termo responsividade &eacute;    tamb&eacute;m utilizado na literatura com refer&ecirc;ncia &agrave; prontid&atilde;o,    conting&ecirc;ncia e adequa&ccedil;&atilde;o das reac&ccedil;&otilde;es dos    pais (Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton, 1974; Ainsworth et al., 1978; Baumrind, 1967,    1978; Bell & Ainsworth, 1972; Bornstein, 1989a,b; Bowlby, 1971; De Wolff & van    IJzendoorn, 1997).</p>     <P>A teoria da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o tem sido largamente utilizada na investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o sobre parentalidade, nomeadamente a prop&oacute;sito do seu potencial impacto no desenvolvimento infantil. Diversos estudos t&ecirc;m focado a influ&ecirc;ncia das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o nos resultados desenvolvimentais das crian&ccedil;as (Sroufe, 2000). M&atilde;es de crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras apresentam n&iacute;veis mais elevados de sensibilidade, aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o, coopera&ccedil;&atilde;o e disponibilidade emocional (Ainsworth, 1967). Por sua vez, as crian&ccedil;as com hist&oacute;rias de cuidados responsivos e vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura revelam valores mais elevados de compet&ecirc;ncia social (Ver&iacute;ssimo, Fernandes, Santos, Peceguina, Vaughn, & Bost, 2012), mais comportamentos de partilha afectiva e mais compet&ecirc;ncias de resolu&ccedil;&atilde;o de problemas, parecem ser tamb&eacute;m mais aut&oacute;nomas, perseverantes, cognitivamente flex&iacute;veis (Ainsworth et al., 1978), emp&aacute;ticas e flex&iacute;veis na gest&atilde;o dos seus impulsos e emo&ccedil;&otilde;es e apresentar maiores n&iacute;veis de auto-estima e autoconfian&ccedil;a (Bowlby, 1988; Sroufe, 1983). Estas crian&ccedil;as tendem a responder mais frequentemente com emo&ccedil;&otilde;es positivas &agrave;s iniciativas dos pares e apresentam menor n&uacute;mero de problemas emocionais, ao contr&aacute;rio das crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o inseguras, com maior frequ&ecirc;ncia de perturba&ccedil;&otilde;es ansiosas e do comportamento (Sroufe, 2000), mais sintomas depressivos (Graham & Easterbrooks, 2000) e mais problemas de isolamento, auto-conceito, e nas rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de um modo geral (Bowlby, 1988).</p>     <P>VINCULA&Ccedil;&Atilde;O E ESTILOS PARENTAIS</p>     <P>A liga&ccedil;&atilde;o entre uma vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura e os estilos parentais de Baumrind foi indicada pela primeira vez por Bowlby (1973), que referiu o estilo autorizante como o mais vantajoso na promo&ccedil;&atilde;o de uma vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura (Page & Bretherton, 2001). Bowlby (1973) apontou para a liga&ccedil;&atilde;o entre as caracter&iacute;sticas do estilo autorizante e os comportamentos parentais sens&iacute;veis, cooperativos e de aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o, tidos como fundamentais nas rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras (Breterthon, Golby, & Cho, 1997). Assim como Ainsworth e colegas descreveram as m&atilde;es de crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras com n&iacute;veis mais elevados de sensibilidade, aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o, coopera&ccedil;&atilde;o e disponibilidade emocional, tamb&eacute;m Baumrind descreveu as m&atilde;es autorizantes com elevados n&iacute;veis de responsividade afectuosa e de suporte (Nair & Murray, 2005).</p>     <P>Parecem, assim, existir semelhan&ccedil;as entre o conceito de sensibilidade (ou responsividade, segundo Bornstein) apresentando por Ainsworth, que a teoria da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o tem destacado como principal promotor de uma vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura, e que remete para a capacidade de percep&ccedil;&atilde;o e interpreta&ccedil;&atilde;o dos sinais da crian&ccedil;a e respectiva capacidade de resposta &agrave;s suas necessidades e o estilo parental autorizante (Karavasilis, Doyle, & Markiewicz, 2003), bem como o conceito de responsividade referido por Baumrind e por Maccoby e Martin, que aludem a uma sintonia com as necessidades dos filhos, &agrave; sensibilidade e adapta&ccedil;&atilde;o a esses mesmos sinais e necessidades.</p>     <P>Algumas investiga&ccedil;&otilde;es debru&ccedil;aram-se sobre estas duas abordagens    &agrave; parentalidade. Karavasilis e colaboradores (Karavasilis, Doyle, & Markiewicz,    2003) apontam que uma parentalidade autorizante parece promover rela&ccedil;&otilde;es    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras, tendo encontrado associa&ccedil;&otilde;es    positivas entre o estilo autorizante e uma vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura &agrave;    m&atilde;e em crian&ccedil;as (<i>M</i>=10.6, <i>SD</i>=1.0) e adolescentes    (<i>M</i>=15.1, <i>SD</i>=1.2). Os autores utilizaram o Parenting Styles Questionaire    (PSQ; Lamborn et al., 1991) para aceder &agrave;s percep&ccedil;&otilde;es sobre    as pr&aacute;ticas parentais; a vers&atilde;o curta do <i>Coping Stretegies    Questionaire</i> (CSQ; Finnegan, Hodges, & Perry, 1996) para aceder aos padr&otilde;es    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o insegura das crian&ccedil;as; a escala de suporte    social do <i>Network of Relationships Inventory </i>(NRI; Furman & Buhrmester,    1985) que acede a 11 dimens&otilde;es de relacionamentos interpessoais das crian&ccedil;as;    o <i>Relationship Questionnnaire</i> (RQ; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) para    aceder &agrave; seguran&ccedil;a da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o &agrave; m&atilde;e    nos adolescentes; e o <i>Children&rsquo;s Social Desirability Questionnaire</i>    (CSD; Crandall, Crandall, & Katkovsky, 1965) para aceder &agrave; auto-apresenta&ccedil;&atilde;o    positiva para controlo estat&iacute;stico.</p>     <P>No estudo de Roelofs e colaboradores (Roelofs, Meesters, & Muris, 2008), com    crian&ccedil;as entre os 9 e os 12 anos, os autores utilizaram o <i>Relationship    Questionnaire</i> (RQ; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) como medida do estilo de    vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o rom&acirc;ntico; o <i>Relationship Questionnaire for    Children</i> (RQ-C), a vers&atilde;o para crian&ccedil;as do question&aacute;rio    anterior; e o <i>Parenting Practices Questionnaire</i> (PPQ; Robinson, Mandleco,    Olsen, & Hart, 1995) para avaliar os comportamentos parentais. As crian&ccedil;as    com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o inseguras ao pai t&ecirc;m    pais com valores mais reduzidos no estilo autorizante, comparadas com as crian&ccedil;as    com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras aos pais.</p>     <P>Nair e Murray (2005) apontam para a contribui&ccedil;&atilde;o directa dos    estilos parentais para a seguran&ccedil;a na vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o em crian&ccedil;as    entre os 2 e os 6 anos. Estes autores utilizaram o <i>Attachment Q-set</i> (Waters,    1995) para aceder &agrave;s rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o;    o <i>Parental Authority Questionnaire</i> (PAQ; Buri, 1991) para aceder aos    estilos parentais; o <i>Daily Hassles Scale</i> (DHS; Lazarus, Cohen, Folkman,    Kanner, & Schaefer, 1980) para medir o stress relativo que caracteriza a vida    quotidiana; o <i>Beck Depression Inventory</i> (BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelson,    Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961) como &iacute;ndice de depress&atilde;o materna; o <i>Conflict    Tactics Scale</i> (CTS; Strauss & Gelles, 1990) como medida do conflito; o <i>Arizona    Social Support Interview Schedule</i> (ASSIS; Barrera, 1981) para medir o suporte    social; e o <i>Behavioral Style Questionnaire</i> (BSQ; McDevitt & Carey, 1978)    para medir o temperamento.</p>     <P>No estudo de Neal e Frick-Horbury (2001) com estudantes universit&aacute;rios,    92% dos estudantes que reportaram pais com um estilo autorizante tinham tamb&eacute;m    rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras com os mesmos. Para    avaliar as percep&ccedil;&otilde;es dos participantes acerca da sua hist&oacute;ria    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, os autores utilizaram uma vers&atilde;o modificada    do <i>Descriptions of Parental Caregiving Style </i>(Hazan & Shaver, 1986);    o <i>Attachment and Object Relations Inventory</i> (AORI; Buelow, McClain, &    McIntosh, 1996) para aceder &agrave;s rela&ccedil;&otilde;es com os outros e    &agrave;s caracter&iacute;sticas relacionais de si pr&oacute;prio; eo <i>Parenting    Practices Survey</i> (Robinson et al., 1995) para avaliar os estilos parentais.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P>Muris e colaboradores (Muris, Meesters, & van der Berg, 2003) encontraram,    numa amostra de adolescentes, associa&ccedil;&otilde;es entre rela&ccedil;&otilde;es    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras e pr&aacute;ticas educativas parentais menos    rejeitantes e mais afectivas e calorosas. Os autores utilizaram o <i>Attachment    Questionnaire for Children</i> (AQC; Muris, Mayer, & Meesters, 2000) para aceder    aos padr&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o; a vers&atilde;o infantil do    EMBU (EMBU-C; Castro, Toro, Van der Ende, & Arrindell, 1993) para medir percep&ccedil;&otilde;es    acerca dos comportamentos parentais; e o <i>Youth Self-Report</i> (YSR; Achenbach,    1991), para aceder a problemas emocionais e de comportamento.</p>     <P>Um outro estudo de Muris e colaboradores (Muris, Meesters, Merckelbach, & Hulsenbeck,    2000) utilizou as descri&ccedil;&otilde;es protot&iacute;picas dos padr&otilde;es    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o de Hazan e Shaver (1986); uma vers&atilde;o modificada    do EMBU-C (Castro et al., 1993) para avaliar os comportamentos parentais; e    o question&aacute;rio PSWQ-C (Chorpita, Tracey, Brown, Collica, & Barlow, 1997)    para avaliar a preocupa&ccedil;&atilde;o em crian&ccedil;as entre os 9 e os    13 anos. As crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o    ambivalentes reportaram mais frequentemente comportamentos educativos parentais    ansiosos que as crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o    seguras e as crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o    evitantes reportaram mais frequentemente rejei&ccedil;&atilde;o parental que    as crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras.</p>     <P>Nos resultados do estudo de Roelofs e colaboradores (Roelofs, Meesters, Ter    Huurne, Bamelis, & Muris, 2006) as crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o inseguras obtiveram valores significativamente superiores    na rejei&ccedil;&atilde;o parental e sobreprotec&ccedil;&atilde;o e significativamente    inferiores na afectividade, comparadas com as crian&ccedil;as com rela&ccedil;&otilde;es    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o seguras. Os autores utilizaram, numa amostra com    crian&ccedil;as entre os 9 e os 12 anos, o <i>The Revised Child Anxiety and    Depression Scale </i>(RCADS; Chorpita, Yim, Moffitt, Umemoto, & Francis, 2000)    para avaliar sintomas de internaliza&ccedil;&atilde;o; uma vers&atilde;o de    auto-relato do <i>Teacher Rating Scale of Aggression</i> (TRA; Brown, Atkins,    Osborne, & Milnamow, 1996) para os sintomas de etxernaliza&ccedil;&atilde;o;    uma vers&atilde;o modificada do EMBU-C para os comportamentos educativos parentais    percebidos (Muris, Messters, & Van Brajel, 2003); e para o estilo de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o    o <i>The Relationship Questionnaire for Children</i> (RQC; Bartholomew & Horowitz,    1991).</p>     <P>Num estudo de Kerns (Kerns, Aspelmeier, Gentzler, & Grabill, 2001), uma vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o    segura estava relacionada com monitoriza&ccedil;&atilde;o mais pr&oacute;xima    por parte dos pais. Os autores utilizaram a<i> Security Scale </i>(Kerns, Klepac,    & Cole, 1996) para aceder &agrave;s percep&ccedil;&otilde;es de seguran&ccedil;a    das crian&ccedil;as nas suas rela&ccedil;&otilde;es; o <i>Child Rearing Practices    Report</i> (CRPR; Block, 1965) para avaliar a aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o e vontade    dos pais como figuras de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o; a monitoriza&ccedil;&atilde;o    foi avaliada atrav&eacute;s de entrevistas telef&oacute;nicas (Crouter & McHale,    1993; Crouter, MacDermid, McHale, & Perry-Jenkins, 1990); e foi utilizado um    conjunto de perguntas constru&iacute;das pelos autores e colocadas aos pais    e &agrave;s crian&ccedil;as, para avaliar o contributo da crian&ccedil;a para    o processo de monitoriza&ccedil;&atilde;o.</p>     <P>Bosmans e colaboradores (Bosmans, Braet, Leeuwen, & Beyers, 2006) realizaram    um estudo com adolescentes entre os 10 e os 18 anos, utilizando o <i>The Youth    Self-Report </i>(YSR; Achenbach, 1991) para avaliar problemas de comportamento;    o<i> Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment</i> (IPPA; Armsden & Greenberg,    1987; traduzido por Noom, Decovic, & Meeus, 1999) para avaliar as rela&ccedil;&otilde;es    de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o &agrave; m&atilde;e e ao pai; e o <i>Ghent Parental    Behavior Scale</i> (GPBS, Van Leeuwen & Vermulst, 2004) para aceder aos comportamentos    parentais. Os resultados mostraram que a vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o &agrave; m&atilde;e    e ao pai medeia o controlo negativo e os problemas de comportamento nos grupos    entre os 10 e os 12 anos e entre os 13 e os 15 anos.</p>     <P>Os autores van Brakel, Muris, Bogels e Thomassen (2006) realizaram um estudo    com adolescentes entre os 11 e os 15 anos, utilizando o <i>Behavioral Inhibition    Scale (BIS) </i>para avaliar a inibi&ccedil;&atilde;o comportamental (Muris,    Merckelbach, Wessel, & Ven de van, 1999); o <i>Attachment Questionnaire for    Children (AQ-C) </i>para descrever os sentimentos das crian&ccedil;as e as suas    percep&ccedil;&otilde;es acerca das suas rela&ccedil;&otilde;es com os pares;    a vers&atilde;o modificada do EMBU-C (Castro et al., 1993; Muris, Bosma, Meesters,    & Schouten, 1998) para avaliar os comportamentos educativos parentais; e o <i>Screen    for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) </i>para medir sintomas    de p&acirc;nico, fobia social, ansiedade de separa&ccedil;&atilde;o, ansiedade    generalizada e fobia escolar (Birmaher et al., 1999). N&iacute;veis elevados    de inibi&ccedil;&atilde;o comportamental, vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o insegura,    controlo parental e pr&aacute;ticas educativas ansiosas estavam associados a    n&iacute;veis elevados de sintomas ansiosos.</p>     <P>Num estudo de Sim&otilde;es e colaboradores (Sim&otilde;es, Farate, Soares,    & Pocinho, 2011), com uma amostra de crian&ccedil;as entre os 7 e os 11 anos,    as m&atilde;es que providenciam maior suporte emocional identificam nos seus    filhos um comportamento de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o mais seguro e as m&atilde;es    que utilizam com os seus filhos mais comportamentos de rejei&ccedil;&atilde;o    consideram que os mesmos t&ecirc;m um comportamento de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o    mais inseguro. Os autores utilizaram a vers&atilde;o portuguesa do <i>EMBUP</i>    (Canavarro, Pereira, & Canavarro, 2003) para avaliar a percep&ccedil;&atilde;o    da m&atilde;e relativamente ao seu estilo educativo parental; e a <i>Escala    de Percep&ccedil;&atilde;o Materna do Comportamento de Vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o    da Crian&ccedil;a</i> (Dias, Soares, & Freire, 2002) para avaliar a percep&ccedil;&atilde;o    da m&atilde;e sobre os comportamentos de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o do filho.</p>     <P>Diversos estudos t&ecirc;m, assim, focado a influ&ecirc;ncia das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es precoces nos resultados desenvolvimentais das crian&ccedil;as, nomeadamente ao n&iacute;vel da adapta&ccedil;&atilde;o psicol&oacute;gica, social e acad&eacute;mica. No entanto, s&atilde;o poucos os estudos que se debru&ccedil;am sobre a liga&ccedil;&atilde;o entre estilos parentais e as rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, o que reflecte uma lacuna na investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o em parentalidade. Esta escassez &eacute; superior no que respeita aos efeitos das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o e dos estilos parentais nos resultados desenvolvimentais das crian&ccedil;as. Ao mesmo tempo, s&atilde;o tamb&eacute;m poucos os estudos que utilizem medidas que abranjam ambos os progenitores e com m&eacute;todo multiinformadores.</p>     <P>Face &agrave;s duas grandes dimens&otilde;es na parentalidade que podem ser    distinguidas &#8212; uma relativa ao controlo (psicol&oacute;gico ou comportamental)    e outra relacionada com o suporte/afecto, isto &eacute;, a parentalidade enquanto    aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o, disponibilidade emocional, sensibilidade e liga&ccedil;&atilde;o    emocional pai-crian&ccedil;a (Cummings, Davies, & Campbell, 2000) &#8212; Cummings    (Cummings & Cummings, 2002; Cummings et al., 2000), tal como Baumrind, sugere    a integra&ccedil;&atilde;o das v&aacute;rias abordagens de investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o    em parentalidade, especificamente destas duas grandes dimens&otilde;es, para    uma melhor compreens&atilde;o das influ&ecirc;ncias da parentalidade no desenvolvimento    das crian&ccedil;as.</p>     <P>&nbsp;</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P>REFER&Ecirc;NCIAS</p>     <!-- ref --><P>Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the youth self-report. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000054&pid=S0870-8231201300040000600001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></p>     <!-- ref --><P>Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000056&pid=S0870-8231201300040000600002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></p>     <!-- ref --><P>Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1982). 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