<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0870-8231</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Análise Psicológica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Aná. Psicológica]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0870-8231</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[ISPA-Instituto Universitário]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0870-82312014000400004</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">1014417/ap.32.3.698</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="pt"><![CDATA[Pais e mães protegem, acarinham e brincam de formas diferentes]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Faria]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Anabela]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Santos]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Pedro Lopes dos]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fuertes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Marina]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A03"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A04"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Hospital de Santo Espírito de Angra do Heroísmo  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidade do Porto Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A03">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa Escola Superior de Educação ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A04">
<institution><![CDATA[,Faculdade de Psicologia do Porto Centro de Psicologia ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>32</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<fpage>419</fpage>
<lpage>437</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0870-82312014000400004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0870-82312014000400004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0870-82312014000400004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="pt"><p><![CDATA[No presente artigo de revisão quisemos explorar os papéis maternos e paternos no estabelecimento da vinculação e na qualidade da interação entre pais (pais e mães) e filhos nos primeiros dois anos de vida. Vários estudos recorrendo à Situação Estranha indicam que a vinculação segura é mais frequente em díades mãe-filho do que em díades pai-filho, e que as mães em média são mais sensíveis do que os pais. No entanto, a diversidade de estudos, metodologias e resultados permitem-nos reinterpretar o papel paterno. Adicionalmente, as medidas de avaliação da sensibilidade foram, na maioria dos casos, aferidas em estudos da relação mãe-filho(a) e não sabemos se integram a diversidade de comportamentos da relação pai-filho(a). Importa compreender e discutir as diferenças da vinculação com a mãe e com o pai no quadro mais amplo das relações da família.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[In this revision, we aim to explore the maternal and paternal roles in the establishment of attachment and in the quality of interaction between parents (mothers and fathers) and children in the first two years of their lives. Several studies using the Strange Situation indicate that secure attachment is more frequent in mother-child dyads than in parent-child dyads, and that mothers tend to be more sensitive than parents in free play interactions. However, a variety of studies, methods and results allow us reinterpret fathers performance. Additionally, most of the sensitivity measures were developed in studies with mother-child dyads. Therefore, one can wonder if the diversity of parents’ behavior and parent-child relationship are described in such scales. In order to understand and discuss maternal and paternal differences we need to take in consideration the broader context of family relationships.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Vinculação]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Jogo]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Mãe-filho(a)]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Pai-filho(a)]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Interações]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Attachment]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Play]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Mother-infant and father]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Interactions]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p><b>Pais e m&atilde;es protegem, acarinham e brincam de formas diferentes</b>    <p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><b>Anabela Faria<sup>*</sup>, Pedro Lopes dos Santos<sup>**</sup>, Marina Fuertes<sup>***</sup></b></p>     <p><sup>*</sup> Hospital de Santo Esp&iacute;rito de Angra do Hero&iacute;smo;</p>     <p><sup>**</sup> FPCE, Universidade do Porto; </p>     <p><sup>***</sup> Escola Superior de Educa&ccedil;&atilde;o do IPL e Centro de Psicologia da Faculdade de Psicologia do Porto </p>     <p><a name="topc0"></a><a href="#c0">Correspondência</a></p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><b>RESUMO</b></p>No presente artigo de revis&atilde;o quisemos explorar os pap&eacute;is maternos e paternos no estabelecimento da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o e na qualidade da intera&ccedil;&atilde;o entre pais (pais e m&atilde;es) e filhos nos primeiros dois anos de vida.  V&aacute;rios estudos recorrendo &agrave; Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha indicam que a vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura &eacute; mais frequente em  d&iacute;ades m&atilde;e-filho do que em d&iacute;ades pai-filho, e que as m&atilde;es em m&eacute;dia s&atilde;o mais sens&iacute;veis do que os  pais. No entanto, a diversidade de estudos, metodologias e resultados permitem-nos reinterpretar o papel paterno. Adicionalmente, as medidas de  avalia&ccedil;&atilde;o da sensibilidade foram, na maioria dos casos, aferidas em estudos da rela&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho(a) e n&atilde;o  sabemos se integram a diversidade de comportamentos da rela&ccedil;&atilde;o pai-filho(a). Importa compreender e discutir as diferen&ccedil;as da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o com a m&atilde;e e com o pai no quadro mais amplo das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es da fam&iacute;lia. </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Palavras-chave:</b> Vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, Jogo, M&atilde;e-filho(a), Pai-filho(a), Intera&ccedil;&otilde;es. </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><b>ABSTRACT</b></p>In this revision, we aim to explore the maternal and paternal roles in the establishment of attachment and in the quality of  interaction between parents (mothers and fathers) and children in the first two years of their lives. Several studies using the Strange Situation  indicate that secure attachment is more frequent in mother-child dyads than in parent-child dyads, and that mothers tend to be more sensitive than  parents in free play interactions. However, a variety of studies, methods and results allow us reinterpret fathers performance. Additionally, most  of the sensitivity measures were developed in studies with mother-child dyads. Therefore, one can wonder if the diversity of parents&rsquo;  behavior and parent-child relationship are described in such scales. In order to understand and discuss maternal and paternal differences we need  to take in consideration the broader context of family relationships. </p>     <p><b>Key-words:</b> Attachment, Play, Mother-infant and father, Interactions. </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p>INTRODU&Ccedil;&Atilde;O </p>     <p>A vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o &eacute; a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o preferencial entre a crian&ccedil;a e a(s) sua(s) figura(s) materna(s), n&atilde;o  necessariamente a m&atilde;e biol&oacute;gica mas quem lhe presta cuidados, oferece prote&ccedil;&atilde;o e com quem desenvolve uma  rela&ccedil;&atilde;o afetiva de refer&ecirc;ncia (Bowlby, 1969/1982). Tradicionalmente, no seio da investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o sobre a  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho(a) tem sido mais estudada do que a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o pai-filho(a) (e.g.,  Frodi &amp; Thompson, 1985; Huth-Boks, Levendosky, Bogat, &amp; von Eye, 2004; Mills-Koonce et al., 2007; Pederson &amp; Moran, 1996; Pederson,  Gleason, Moran, &amp; Bento, 1998; Poehlmann &amp; Fiese, 2001; Raikes &amp; Thompson, 2005; Slade, 1987; Tarabulsy et al., 2005). Contudo, o pai  &eacute; uma figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o (e.g., Belsky, Gilstrap, &amp; Rovine, 1984; Braungart-Rieker et al., 2001; Schoppe-Sullivan, 2006;  Volling, McElwain, Notaro, &amp; Herrea, 2002) e nas sociedades ocidentais verifica-se o aumento da implica&ccedil;&atilde;o do pai na  presta&ccedil;&atilde;o de cuidados &agrave; crian&ccedil;a (Coleman, Garfield, &amp; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family  Health, 2004; Pordata, 2014). Assim, como se caracterizam os pais enquanto figuras de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o em compara&ccedil;&atilde;o com as  m&atilde;es? E como cuidador? Que fatores explicam as poss&iacute;veis diferen&ccedil;as? A presente revis&atilde;o de literatura pretende reunir  dados sobre a qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o entre pais e filhos e entre m&atilde;es e filhos tentando evocar alguns elementos explicativos  da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o com a figura materna e com a figura paterna. </p>     <p>Ao longo de mais de 40 anos, o campo de estudo da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o tem sido um dos mais produtivos da hist&oacute;ria da psicologia (em  n&uacute;mero de publica&ccedil;&otilde;es e cita&ccedil;&otilde;es) e o ritmo n&atilde;o parece abrandar. Possivelmente, porque para al&eacute;m  da organiza&ccedil;&atilde;o dos comportamentos da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, por serem complexos (integrando <i>nature </i>e <i>nurture </i>numa  m&uacute;tua influ&ecirc;ncia) ainda estejam por deslindar (e.g., Bakermans-Kranenburg, van IJzendoorn, Bokhorst, &amp; Schuengel, 2004; Bokhorst  et al., 2003; Fearon et al., 2006). Da nuvem de dados, resultam interpreta&ccedil;&otilde;es e abordagens te&oacute;ricas distintas que  coabitam e enriquecem a compreens&atilde;o deste fen&oacute;meno. Esperamos com esta reuni&atilde;o e discuss&atilde;o de informa&ccedil;&atilde;o  contribuir tamb&eacute;m para esta compreens&atilde;o<sup><a href="#1">1</a></sup><a name="top1"></a>. </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><i>Rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o </i></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Segundo Bowbly (1969/1982) o estabelecimento de rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o &eacute;, em si, um fen&oacute;meno  normativo e universal na esp&eacute;cie humana. As crian&ccedil;as desenvolvem um la&ccedil;o afetivo com as figuras que lhes dispensam cuidados  maternos. As figuras maternas s&atilde;o procuradas para obter conforto e seguran&ccedil;a, em situa&ccedil;&otilde;es que a crian&ccedil;a  interpreta como amea&ccedil;antes bem como s&atilde;o uma retaguarda para explorar o meio (f&iacute;sico e social) quando o perigo n&atilde;o se  avizinha<sup><a href="#2">2</a></sup><a name="top2"></a>. O modo como a crian&ccedil;a utiliza essas figuras enquanto fonte de seguran&ccedil;a  diferencia-se entre as d&iacute;ades (Ainsworth, 1965). Tais varia&ccedil;&otilde;es s&atilde;o concebidas como diferen&ccedil;as individuais da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o. </p>     <p>Sob o ponto de vista metodol&oacute;gico t&ecirc;m sido propostas v&aacute;rias abordagens, para estudar a qualidade da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o em diferentes per&iacute;odos do desenvolvimento dos indiv&iacute;duos (cf., Crowell, Fraley, &amp; Shaver, 2008; George,  Kaplan, &amp; Main, 1996; Solomon &amp; George, 2008). Mary Ainsworth foi a primeira autora a propor um sistema destinado a avaliar a qualidade da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o. Apresentou, assim, um procedimento laboratorial conhecido pelo nome de <i>Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha </i>(Ainsworth,  Blehar, Waters, &amp; Wall, 1978) voltado para o estudo do comportamento da crian&ccedil;a entre os 12 e os 20 meses. Este procedimento procura  apreender a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o entre as respostas infantis de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o e de explora&ccedil;&atilde;o ao longo de 8  epis&oacute;dios que instituem, progressivamente, condi&ccedil;&otilde;es de <i>stress </i>moderado, mediante manipula&ccedil;&atilde;o da  presen&ccedil;a ou aus&ecirc;ncia de uma pessoa desconhecida (a Estranha) e a cria&ccedil;&atilde;o de momentos de separa&ccedil;&atilde;o da  figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o. </p>     <p>Interpretados &agrave; luz das assun&ccedil;&otilde;es te&oacute;ricas de Bowlby (1969/1982), os dados obtidos no contexto dos  epis&oacute;dios da <i>Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha</i><sup><a href="#3">3</a></sup><a name="top3"></a> permitem verificar as diferentes maneiras  como as crian&ccedil;as utilizam a figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o enquanto base de explora&ccedil;&atilde;o ou &ldquo;porto de abrigo&rdquo;.  Ainsworth e colegas (1978) identificaram e tipificaram tr&ecirc;s grandes padr&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o: o B (<i>seguro</i>), o A  (<i>inseguro-evitante</i>) e o C (<i>inseguro-resistente/ambivalente</i>). Dentro de cada um destes padr&otilde;es s&atilde;o descritos  v&aacute;rios subgrupos: A1 e A2; B1, B2, B3 e B4; C1 e C2. </p>     <p>O grupo da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o <i>segura </i>(padr&atilde;o B) &eacute; o que possui uma preval&ecirc;ncia maior na generalidade das  amostras internacionais estudadas: oscilando os 50% e 75% (e.g., van IJzendoorn &amp; Kroonenberg, 1988) e entre os 45-58% nas amostras nacionais  (revis&atilde;o em Fuertes, 2005). O beb&eacute; seguro &eacute; ativo nas brincadeiras, procura contacto quando se sente mais ansioso (mas  ap&oacute;s ser confortado retoma a explora&ccedil;&atilde;o), partilha atitudes de afeto positivo &agrave; dist&acirc;ncia e pode chorar em caso  de afli&ccedil;&atilde;o sendo facilmente acalmado pela figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o. </p>     <p>Na vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o denominada de <i>insegura/evitante </i>(padr&atilde;o A), as crian&ccedil;as evitam a m&atilde;e nos  epis&oacute;dios de reuni&atilde;o (Bowlby, 1969/1982), principalmente ap&oacute;s a sua segunda breve aus&ecirc;ncia, e comportam-se, sobretudo  durante as separa&ccedil;&otilde;es, de modo mais amig&aacute;vel com a estranha do que com a pr&oacute;pria m&atilde;e. Neste grupo o evitamento  da proximidade e do contacto ocorre principalmente nos epis&oacute;dios de reuni&atilde;o. O evitamento geralmente &eacute; expresso pela  aus&ecirc;ncia de procura de contacto ou por subtis comportamentos de distanciamento. A crian&ccedil;a pode atrasar-se em responder  &agrave; m&atilde;e, pode ignor&aacute;-la olhando para o lado oposto, passar perto dela sem se aproximar, dedicar-se exclusivamente &agrave;  explora&ccedil;&atilde;o dos brinquedos, rejeitar o contato f&iacute;sico (Ainsworth et al., 1978) ou, simplesmente mostrar um comportamento  &ldquo;<i>pressed lip</i>&rdquo;, que se traduz numa express&atilde;o muito subtil de raiva (Malatesta, Culver, Tesman, &amp; Shepard, 1989).  Quando a m&atilde;e estabelece contacto f&iacute;sico com a crian&ccedil;a, esta tende a evitar olhar para ela, n&atilde;o fazendo qualquer  esfor&ccedil;o para manter o contato. </p>     <p>No tipo de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o <i>inseguro resistente/ambivalente </i>(padr&atilde;o C) as crian&ccedil;as oscilam a procura da proximidade  e contacto com a m&atilde;e e a resist&ecirc;ncia a esse mesmo contato (Bowlby, 1969/1982). Estas crian&ccedil;as n&atilde;o usam a m&atilde;e como  base segura para explorar o novo espa&ccedil;o e podem iniciar a procura do contacto antes da m&atilde;e se ausentar. Quando o adulto cuidador se  ausenta, as crian&ccedil;as podem ficar irritadas e ansiosas, n&atilde;o sendo f&aacute;cil para a figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o  acalm&aacute;-las. </p>     <p>V&aacute;rios estudos verificaram que nem todas as crian&ccedil;as observadas, no &acirc;mbito da Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha, se  enquadravam dentro da tipologia A/B/C e geraram novas tipologias (e.g., Crittenden, 1985; Lyons-Ruth, Connell, Zoll, &amp; Stahl, 1997; Main &amp;  Weston, 1981; Radke-Yarrow, Cummings, Kuckzinsky, &amp; Chapman, 1985). Previamente, Ainsworth e colegas (1978) tinham relatado a dificuldade ou,  at&eacute;, a impossibilidade de classificarem cerca de 5% dos casos nas amostras n&atilde;o cl&iacute;nicas. Nestes casos as crian&ccedil;as  exibem elevada perturba&ccedil;&atilde;o e comportamentos at&iacute;picos, desorientados ou sem aparente coer&ecirc;ncia. Mais tarde, van  IJzendoorn (1992) assinala em revis&atilde;o metanal&iacute;tica da literatura uma percentagem tr&ecirc;s vezes superior (m&eacute;dia de cerca  de 15%). A incid&ecirc;ncia de casos inclassific&aacute;veis revelava-se particularmente elevada quando as amostras inclu&iacute;am crian&ccedil;as  assinaladas com situa&ccedil;&otilde;es de maltrato ou outras condi&ccedil;&otilde;es de risco psicossocial. Assim, desenvolvimentos posteriores na  classifica&ccedil;&atilde;o da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o viram surgir novas propostas de classifica&ccedil;&atilde;o que expandiam o n&uacute;mero  dos padr&otilde;es originalmente descritos tais como o padr&atilde;o D-Desorganizado/Desorientado proposto por Main e Solomon (1986), U-A  identificado por Lyons-Ruth e colegas (1997), A+, C+ e A/C proposto por Crittenden (ver revis&atilde;o em Fuertes, 2011). </p>     <p>No entanto, n&atilde;o trataremos neste artigo dessas propostas e procuraremos circunscrever a revis&atilde;o a estudos realizados com a  situa&ccedil;&atilde;o estranha (embora existam outras metodologias validadas como o Q-Sort), por facilitar a compara&ccedil;&atilde;o dos  resultados dos estudos limitando a diversidade dos contextos de recolha de dados. Tentamos, igualmente, limitar a revis&atilde;o sobre a  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o a estudos que incluam amostras paternas e maternas. </p>     <p>O estudo da qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o assumiu marcada influ&ecirc;ncia na psicologia do desenvolvimento, com o acumular de  evid&ecirc;ncias que consistentemente apontam para uma rela&ccedil;&atilde;o entre a seguran&ccedil;a da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o estabelecida no  primeiro ano de vida e o desenvolvimento subsequente (infantil e juvenil) (em termos de <i>desempenhos </i>ver revis&atilde;o em Sigelman, 1999,  van IJzendoorn, Juffer, &amp; Klein Poelhuis, 2005 <i>e para compet&ecirc;ncias sociais </i>ver Weinfield, Sroufe, Egeland, &amp; Carlson, 2008). </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><i>Pais e m&atilde;es enquanto figuras de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o </i></p>     <p>Bowlby (1969) postulou a teoria da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o recorrendo a uma perspetiva evolutiva e etol&oacute;gica da rela&ccedil;&atilde;o  m&atilde;e-filho. Contudo, posteriormente Bowlby (1982) referiu que esta figura materna n&atilde;o tinha de ser necessariamente a m&atilde;e  biol&oacute;gica, admitindo que o pai pode desempenhar este papel. Ainsworth (1967), enfatizando que a m&atilde;e n&atilde;o constitui a  &uacute;nica pessoa com quem a crian&ccedil;a estabelece rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o, observou fortes liga&ccedil;&otilde;es  entre o beb&eacute; e o pai ao longo do seu estudo efectuado no Uganda, mesmo quando os contactos eram pouco frequentes: &ldquo;<i>It seemed to be  especially to the father that these other attachments were formed, even in the cases of babies who saw their fathers relatively infrequently.  One can only assume that there was some special quality in the father&rsquo;s interaction with his child &ndash; whether of tenderness or intense  delight &ndash; which evoked in turn a strength of attachment disproportionate to the frequency of his interaction with the baby</i>&rdquo; (p. 352). </p>     <p>Estas ideias ganham fundamento emp&iacute;rico em v&aacute;rios estudos sobre a vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o pai-filho que recorrendo &agrave;  Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha conseguem a identifica&ccedil;&atilde;o de padr&otilde;es de seguran&ccedil;a ou inseguran&ccedil;a como nas  d&iacute;ades m&atilde;e-filho (para revis&atilde;o ver Lucassen et al., 2011). N&atilde;o obstante, os estudos comparativos entre a qualidade da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho e pai-filho revelam que o padr&atilde;o de relacionamento seguro &eacute; mais prov&aacute;vel nas  d&iacute;ades m&atilde;e-filho (consultar <a href="#q1">Quadro 1</a>). Contudo, a introdu&ccedil;&atilde;o da classifica&ccedil;&atilde;o D parece  atenuar ou mesmo alterar as diferen&ccedil;as na incid&ecirc;ncia da seguran&ccedil;a com a m&atilde;e e com o pai. </p>      <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><a name="q1"></a></p>     <p><img src="/img/revistas/aps/v32n4/32n4a04q1.jpg"></p>     
<p>&nbsp;</p>     <p>Se existem diferen&ccedil;as entre a qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho(a) e pai-filho(a), que fatores poder&atilde;o  contribuir para estas diferen&ccedil;as entre pais e m&atilde;es? </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><i>Sensibilidade materna e paterna </i></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Embora a vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o tenha de ser entendida num quadro compreensivo sist&eacute;mico resultando de m&uacute;ltiplos fatores e  intera&ccedil;&otilde;es, o antecedente isolado mais fortemente associado &agrave; qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura &eacute; a  <i>sensibilidade materna </i>(De Wolf &amp; van IJzendoorn, 1997). A sensibilidade foi definida como a capacidade do adulto &ldquo;<i>(...) to  perceive and to interpret accurately the signals and communications implicit in her infant&rsquo;s behavior, and given this understanding, to  respond to them appropriately and promptly</i>&rdquo; (Ainsworth, Bell, &amp; Stayton, 1974, p. 127). Segundo a autora a sensibilidade comporta  quatro aspectos fundamentais: (i) capacidade para perceber os sinais exteriorizados pela crian&ccedil;a; (ii) capacidade para os interpretar  correctamente; (iii) adequa&ccedil;&atilde;o das respostas dadas; (iv) prontid&atilde;o dessas mesmas respostas. Ser&aacute; diferente a  sensibilidade materna da sensibilidade paterna? </p>     <p>A literatura indica que, em m&eacute;dia, a sensibilidade materna &eacute; superior &agrave; paterna (Volling, McElwain, Notaro, &amp; Herrera,  2002). At&eacute; recentemente, era d&uacute;bia a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o entre sensibilidade paterna e seguran&ccedil;a na vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o  infantil. De facto, alguns estudos n&atilde;o encontraram resultados significativos entre a qualidade da intera&ccedil;&atilde;o dos pais e a  seguran&ccedil;a da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o com o pai (Caldera, Huston, &amp; O&rsquo;Brien, 1995; Grossmann &amp; Grossmann, 1992; Schneider,  Rosen, &amp; Rothbaum, 1993). Outras investiga&ccedil;&otilde;es, pelo contr&aacute;rio, indicam uma correla&ccedil;&atilde;o significativa entre  a sensibilidade paterna e seguran&ccedil;a da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o (Cox, Owen, Henderson, &amp; Margand, 1992; Goossens &amp; van IJzendoorn,  1990). </p>     <p>Em 2011, mais uma meta-an&aacute;lise de van IJzendoorn e a sua equipa, reunindo tr&ecirc;s d&eacute;cadas de investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o, desfez  a d&uacute;vida ao encontrar uma associa&ccedil;&atilde;o (ainda que fraca) entre a qualidade de resposta dos pais e a vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o  (Lucassen et al., 2011). No entanto, a associa&ccedil;&atilde;o entre a sensibilidade materna e a seguran&ccedil;a da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o  &eacute; moderada (<i>r</i>=.23) enquanto esta associa&ccedil;&atilde;o em d&iacute;ades paternas &eacute; fraca (<i>r=</i>.13). </p>     <p>As diferen&ccedil;as entre os pais e as m&atilde;es s&atilde;o corroboradas pela fraca associa&ccedil;&atilde;o entre a qualidade da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho e pai-filho (<i>r</i>=.17). Por outras palavras, &eacute; poss&iacute;vel (e prov&aacute;vel) que uma  crian&ccedil;a possa ter um relacionamento seguro com um dos pais e inseguro com o outro (de Wolf &amp; van IJzendoorn, 1997). </p>     <p>Contudo, a qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o pai-filho parece ser um fator importante para o desenvolvimento e bem estar infantil (e.g.,  Lamb, 1997; Lamb &amp; Lewis, 2004). Alguns estudos indicam que as crian&ccedil;as que estabelecem rela&ccedil;&otilde;es seguras com os seus pais  tendem a apresentar menos problemas de comportamento (Vershueren &amp; Marcoen, 1999), maior sociabilidade (Sagi et al., 1985) e  rela&ccedil;&otilde;es mais rec&iacute;procas com os seus pares (Ver&iacute;ssimo et al., 2011). Por outro lado, a literatura indica que a  aus&ecirc;ncia do pai ou que a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o pai-filho(a) insens&iacute;vel afetam o desenvolvimento socioemocional da crian&ccedil;a e do  jovem (Grossmann, Grossmann, &amp; Kindler, 2005 para uma revis&atilde;o). Outros autores, como Lamb (2012) sugerem que o g&eacute;nero dos pais  n&atilde;o &eacute; uma variavel cr&iacute;tica no bem estar (&ldquo;adjusment&rdquo;) dos filhos. Enquanto a qualidade das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es  entre pais e filhos e entre os pr&oacute;prios pais e adultos significativos na vida das crian&ccedil;as, tendo em conta os recursos  s&oacute;cio-econ&oacute;micos dispon&iacute;veis, t&ecirc;m um papel determinante. </p>     <p>Um estudo realizado pela equipa de Grossmans e colegas (2002) indicou que o impacto do comportamento parental &eacute; maior a longo prazo (aos  10 anos de idade) abrindo a porta &agrave; compreens&atilde;o do papel do pai como din&acirc;mico mas crucial. </p>     <p>Em suma, os pap&eacute;is dos pais e das m&atilde;es podem ser diferentes mas s&atilde;o complementares e igualmente relevantes para o  desenvolvimento infantil! </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><i>Tarefas e pap&eacute;is maternos e paternos </i></p>     <p>Parke e Sawin (1976) observaram as m&atilde;es e os pais enquanto estes alimentavam os seus filhos e conclu&iacute;ram que os pais eram capazes  de realizar esta tarefa com a mesma efici&ecirc;ncia e sensibilidade que as m&atilde;es. Igualmente, outras investiga&ccedil;&otilde;es indicam que  os pais que participam (e escolhem participar) nas rotinas familiares realizam com a mesma profici&ecirc;ncia a presta&ccedil;&atilde;o de cuidados  &agrave;s crian&ccedil;as (Belsky, Gistrap, &amp; Rovine, 1984; Lamb, 1981; Parke &amp; Tinsley, 1981). Com efeito, a quest&atilde;o colocada por  alguns autores &eacute; qual das seguintes vari&aacute;veis mais pesa na organiza&ccedil;&atilde;o da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o: o tempo dedicado  pelo pai e pela m&atilde;e nos cuidados e intera&ccedil;&atilde;o com os filhos ou o g&eacute;nero dos pais? </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Na maioria das culturas, constata-se que as m&atilde;es passam mais tempo com os filhos do que os pais (Hewlett, 1992; Parke &amp; Buriel, 2006;  Phares, 1996), embora, os pais comecem a passar mais tempo a brincar com os filhos (Coleman, Garfield, &amp; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of  Child and Family Health, 2004; Prodata, 2014), principalmente quando se trata do primeiro filho (Michale, 2007). Quando comparados com as  m&atilde;es, os pais, ainda continuam a passar menos tempo com os filhos, principalmente dos 0 aos 2 anos (Yeung, Sandberg, Davis-Kean, &amp;  Hofferth, 2001) e a ter menor responsabilidade nos cuidados infantis (Lamb &amp; Oppenheim, 1989), principalmente nas culturas ocidentais (Cooksey  &amp; Fondell, 1996; Yeung et al., 2001). </p>     <p>Alguns trabalhos compararam pais &ldquo;cuidadores prim&aacute;rios&rdquo; (definidos como aqueles que atribu&iacute;am 20 ou mais horas por  semana de cuidados &agrave; crian&ccedil;a) <i>versus </i>pais que n&atilde;o desempenham cuidados prim&aacute;rios &agrave; crian&ccedil;a. Os  resultados indicam que os pais que assumem o papel de cuidador prim&aacute;rio apresentam intera&ccedil;&otilde;es igualmente positivas e com a  mesma atmosfera de prazer comparativamente &agrave;s m&atilde;es (Lewis et al., 2009; Yogman, 1982). </p>     <p>Em 2010, uma investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o realizada em Portugal, por Monteiro e colegas, indicou que a  participa&ccedil;&atilde;o dos pais na presta&ccedil;&atilde;o de cuidados e em atividades de jogo e lazer estava associada a scores mais elevados  de seguran&ccedil;a avaliados atrav&eacute;s do Attachment Q-sort (AQS; Waters, Vaughn, &amp; Egeland, 1980). Posteriormente, outra  investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o nacional (desenvolvida com a Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha) indicou que a qualidade do tempo passado com a  crian&ccedil;a foi mais importante do que a quantidade do tempo (Faria, Lopes-dos-Santos, Beeghly, &amp; Fuertes, in press). Este &uacute;ltimo  estudo indicou que as m&atilde;es mais dedicadas a brincar e a passear com os filhos (em oposi&ccedil;&atilde;o &agrave;s m&atilde;es menos  dedicadas a estas tarefas<sup><a href="#4">4</a></sup><a name="top4"></a>) tendiam a estabelecer uma vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o segura e uma  intera&ccedil;&atilde;o positiva com as crian&ccedil;as. No grupo dos pais, aqueles que passavam mais tempo a prestar cuidados b&aacute;sicos aos  filhos tendiam a obter scores mais elevados na qualidade da intera&ccedil;&atilde;o e os filhos a desenvolverem com eles uma rela&ccedil;&atilde;o  segura. </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><i>Comportamentos maternos e paternos de acordo com o g&eacute;nero da crian&ccedil;a </i></p>     <p>Parecem existir diferen&ccedil;as no modo como os pais interagem com os filhos e as filhas. Alguns autores relatam que os pais encorajam mais os  filhos a participar em brincadeiras masculinas (t&iacute;picas dos rapazes) e as filhas em brincadeiras femininas (t&iacute;picas das raparigas)  (Snow, Jacklin, &amp; Maccoby, 1983). As m&atilde;es tendem a tratar igualitariamente os filhos e as filhas, enquanto os pais adaptam o seu estilo  parental, aos filhos e &agrave;s filhas (Brundin, Rodholm, &amp; Larsson, 1988; Lytton &amp; Romney, 1991). De facto, os pais interagem em jogos e  brincadeiras mais f&iacute;sicas, ativas (Feldman, 2003; Rohner &amp; Veneziano, 2001) e imprevis&iacute;veis (Parke, 1995) com os filhos do que  com as filhas (Jacklin, DiePietro, &amp; Maccoby, 1984; MacDonald &amp; Parke, 1986), e t&ecirc;m uma maior satisfa&ccedil;&atilde;o parental,  ap&oacute;s 12 a 16 semanas do nascimento, com os filhos (Hudson, Elek, &amp; Ofe Fleck, 2001). Por seu lado, as m&atilde;es interagem em mais  jogos simb&oacute;licos (Langlois &amp; Downs, 1980; Tamis-LeMonda &amp; Bornstein, 1991) e est&atilde;o mais dispon&iacute;veis emocionalmente  (Volling et al., 2002) com as filhas. </p>     <p>Weinberg, Tronick, Cohn e Olson (1998) verificaram que era mais f&aacute;cil reparar a intera&ccedil;&atilde;o nas d&iacute;ades  m&atilde;e-filha do que nas d&iacute;ades m&atilde;e-filho. Apesar dos rapazes estarem inicialmente mais sincronizados com a m&atilde;e durante o  jogo do que as raparigas, quando a m&atilde;e se tornava n&atilde;o responsiva, os rapazes mostravam-se bastante reativos exibindo mais afeto  negativo. Ao contr&aacute;rio, as raparigas evidenciavam maior capacidade de auto-regula&ccedil;&atilde;o na aus&ecirc;ncia de resposta materna  (<i>op. cit.</i>). Alguns estudos referem maior sincronia nas d&iacute;ades do mesmo g&eacute;nero (e.g., pai-filho ou m&atilde;e-filha) (Manlove  &amp; Vernon-Feagans, 2002). Outros estudos mostram que as raparigas s&atilde;o significativamente mais responsivas &agrave;s  vocaliza&ccedil;&otilde;es maternas do que os rapazes (Gumnar &amp; Donahue, 1980). Por seu lado, as m&atilde;es s&atilde;o mais r&aacute;pidas a  responder &agrave;s express&otilde;es faciais das raparigas (Haviland, 1977). </p>     <p>Assim, o conjunto dos estudos sobre a qualidade de intera&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho/filha e pai-filho/filha revela que existem  diferen&ccedil;as nos comportamentos dos pais e das m&atilde;es mediadas pelo g&eacute;nero da crian&ccedil;a. No entanto, no que respeita &agrave;  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o o g&eacute;nero da crian&ccedil;a tem sido pouco discutido como vari&aacute;vel relevante. Com efeito, a maioria dos  estudos com a m&atilde;e ou com o pai como figura de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o n&atilde;o t&ecirc;m indicado diferen&ccedil;as significativas  consoante o g&eacute;nero da crian&ccedil;a (para revis&atilde;o ver, Grossman, Grossman, Kindler, &amp; Zimmermann, 2008). </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><i>Contexto das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o </i></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Posterior a Bowbly e Ainsworth, os te&oacute;ricos da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o recorrem cada vez mais a abordagens multisist&eacute;micas,  ecol&oacute;gicas e transacionais para explicar a qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o longe de uma causalidade direta, apenas, centrada na  sensibilidade materna (e.g., Belsky, 2005; Cicchetti &amp; Barnett, 1991; Crittenden, 2000; Sroufe, 1996). Entre as v&aacute;rias causas aduzidas  para explicar a qualidade do relacionamento entre as figuras maternas e a crian&ccedil;a contam-se as <i>experi&ecirc;ncias de  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o da m&atilde;e </i>(Benoit &amp; Parker, 1994; Fonagy, Steele, &amp; Steele, 1991; Fonagy, Steele, Moran, Steele, &amp;  Higgitt, 1993; Levine, Tuber, Slade, &amp; Ward, 1991; Slade &amp; Cohen, 1996; Ward &amp; Carlson, 1995), <i>e do pai </i>(Grossmann et al., 2002)  vividas durante as suas inf&acirc;ncias. Os pais que se lembram de terem tido pais atenciosos (Sagi, 1982) e implicados nos cuidados b&aacute;sicos  (Cabrera, Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, Hofferth, &amp; Lamb, 2000) mostraram-se mais envolvidos nos cuidados parentais (Cohn, Cowan, Cowan, &amp;  Pearson, 1992). O mesmo foi observado com as m&atilde;es, isto &eacute;, as m&atilde;es que referiram terem tido m&atilde;es est&aacute;veis,  dispon&iacute;veis, carinhosas e competentes nos cuidados, mostraram uma maior tend&ecirc;ncia para terem vincula&ccedil;&otilde;es seguras com  os(as) seus(suas) filhos(as) (Morris, 1980). </p>     <p>Outro elemento importante na seguran&ccedil;a da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o mas, apenas, com um impato indireto &eacute; a  <i>rela&ccedil;&atilde;o marital </i>dos pais. Com efeito, o conflito entre pais e m&atilde;es parece afetar o comportamento materno e paterno  (e.g., Tarabulsy et al., 2005; Tomlinson, Cooper, &amp; Murray, 2005). Tal reflete-se, posteriormente, na qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o  (e.g., Cowan et al., 2005; Edwards, Eiden, &amp; Leonard, 2006; Solomon &amp; George, 1999). Igualmente, a participa&ccedil;&atilde;o dos pais nas  tarefas di&aacute;rias e nos cuidados &agrave; crian&ccedil;a parece ser um factor mediador da sensibilidade materna (e.g., Barnett &amp; Baruch,  1987; Neville &amp; Parke, 1979; Parke &amp; Buriel, 1998). </p>     <p>Igualmente importante &eacute; a <i>satisfa&ccedil;&atilde;o profissional </i>dos pais. As m&atilde;es que indicam ter muito stress profissional  ou m&aacute;s condi&ccedil;&otilde;es profissionais como hor&aacute;rios irregulares (Parke et al., 2004; Raver, 2003; Repetti &amp; Wood, 1997),  ou que identificam o trabalho como pouco reconhecido socialmente (Menaghan, 1983; Raver, 2003; Repetti &amp; Wood, 1997) t&ecirc;m maior  dificuldade em desenvolverem rela&ccedil;&otilde;es positivas com os seus filhos e estes tendem a apresentar um desenvolvimento menos ajustado  (Felfe &amp; Hsin, 2012). Pelo contr&aacute;rio, as m&atilde;es com maior satisfa&ccedil;&atilde;o profissional s&atilde;o descritas na literatura  como mais &ldquo;divertidas&rdquo; nas brincadeiras, entregues no relacionamento com os filhos, descontra&iacute;das e alegres (National Institute  of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD] Early Child Care Research Network, 2000; ver tamb&eacute;m Horn, 2000, para revis&atilde;o). No caso  dos pais, o n&uacute;mero de horas de trabalho medeia o envolvimento parental (Barnett &amp; Baruch, 1987; Brown, McBride, Bost, &amp; Shin, 2011). </p>     <p>A <i>depress&atilde;o </i>materna tanto como a depress&atilde;o paterna afetam significativamente o relacionamento afetivo dos pais e das  m&atilde;es com os filhos (e.g., Wilson &amp; Durbin, 2010). Um vasto corpo de literatura indica que a depress&atilde;o materna &eacute; fator de  risco para a seguran&ccedil;a na vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o e que est&aacute; associada a piores desempenhos desenvolvimentais (meta-an&aacute;lises:  Atkison, Atkison, Smith, Bem, &amp; Nolen-Hocksema, 2000; Belsky &amp; Jaffe, 2006 para revis&atilde;o; Martins &amp; Graffan, 2000). Alguma  literatura indica que a depress&atilde;o materna &eacute; um fator de maior adversidade do que a depress&atilde;o paterna (e.g., Connell &amp;  Goodman, 2002; Kane &amp; Garber, 2004; Klein, Astrachan, &amp; Smyrnios, 2005; Ramchandani, Stein, Evans, &amp; O&rsquo;Connor, 2005). Contudo,  pais deprimidos em compara&ccedil;&atilde;o com pais sem depress&atilde;o diagnosticada tendem a apresentar mais altera&ccedil;&otilde;es de humor,  comportamentos negativos, intrusividade e afastamento psicol&oacute;gico (Wilson &amp; Durbin, 2010). </p>     <p>Outro fator que poder&aacute; influenciar a seguran&ccedil;a na vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o prende-se com o <i>estatuto socioecon&oacute;mico da  fam&iacute;lia </i>(Braungart-Rieker, Courtmey, &amp; Garwood, 1999; Chase-Lansdale &amp; Owen, 1987; Rooparine, Fouts, Lamb, &amp; Lewis-Elligan,  2005; Volling &amp; Belsky, 1992). Fuertes, Faria, Soares e Crittenden (2008) referem que esta condi&ccedil;&atilde;o pode ter um poderoso impacto  na qualidade da intera&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho(a), ainda maior que a prematuridade ou problemas de sa&uacute;de. Possivelmente, porque a  condi&ccedil;&atilde;o de pobreza est&aacute; associada a v&aacute;rias adversidades como a baixa escolaridade, problemas de sa&uacute;de,  desemprego e outras. </p>     <p>No que concerne &agrave; <i>escolaridade dos pais (pais e m&atilde;es) </i>verifica-se que o aumento de anos de escolaridade dos pais  est&aacute; associado a rela&ccedil;&otilde;es seguras (Pederson &amp; Moran, 1996). As m&atilde;es com mais anos de escolaridade s&atilde;o  tendencialmente mais sens&iacute;veis e perspicazes em interpretar os sinais emitidos pela crian&ccedil;a (Fuertes, Faria, Oliveira-Costa, Corval,  &amp; Figueiredo, 2009), dedicam mais tempo a cuidar e a brincar com os filhos (Pederson, Gleason, Moran, &amp; Bento, 1998), tendem a ser mais  r&aacute;pidas e eficientes nas respostas prestadas &agrave;s solicita&ccedil;&otilde;es das crian&ccedil;as (Silva, Del Prette, &amp; Del Prette,  2002). Por outro lado, as m&atilde;es com menos anos de escolaridade podem ser mais controladoras interferindo com maior frequ&ecirc;ncia nas  a&ccedil;&otilde;es das crian&ccedil;as (Silva et al., 2002). </p>     <p>Nesta revis&atilde;o n&atilde;o exaustiva dos fatores que podem condicionar o comportamento dos pais verificamos que fatores ligados &agrave;  fam&iacute;lia como a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o marital, a satisfa&ccedil;&atilde;o profissional, o n&iacute;vel s&oacute;cioecon&oacute;mico ou a  escolaridade das m&atilde;es contribuem para a parentalidade em geral e para a qualidade da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o. Igualmente, fatores  associados aos pais como a depress&atilde;o, a idade das m&atilde;es (especialmente m&atilde;es adolescentes; e.g., Moran, Forbes, Evans,  Tarabulsy, &amp; Madigan, 2008), fatores associados &agrave; crian&ccedil;a como a prematuridade (e.g., Fuertes, Lopes dos Santos, Beeghly, &amp;  Tronick, 2006, 2009), problemas graves de sa&uacute;de ou alguns tipos de incapacidade podem contribuir para a diferencia&ccedil;&atilde;o (e.g.,  Olrick, Pianta, &amp; Marvin, 2002) da parentalidade e o aumento da preval&ecirc;ncia da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o insegura (ver revis&atilde;o em  Lopes dos Santos &amp; Fuertes, 2005). Em s&iacute;ntese, a parentalidade &eacute; o produto das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es estabelecidas no seio da  fam&iacute;lia e da ecologia de multi-influ&ecirc;ncias que a afetam e, a parentalidade &eacute; o contexto onde as rela&ccedil;&otilde;es da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o se estabelecem. </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p>DISCUSS&Atilde;O FINAL </p>     <p>Nos &uacute;ltimos anos os investigadores e desenvolvimentalistas tomaram em conta o facto da fam&iacute;lia ser um sistema no qual todos  contribuem para a sua homeostasia (incluindo o pai). Um vasto corpo de literatura indica que o papel do pai ou da m&atilde;e, n&atilde;o pode ser  apenas explicado pela atua&ccedil;&atilde;o direta com a crian&ccedil;a (revis&atilde;o em George &amp; Solomon, 2008; Monteiro &amp;  Ver&iacute;ssimo, 2010). Com efeito, a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o conjugal, suporte formal e informal dado &agrave; fam&iacute;lia bem como fatores  pessoais e sociais s&atilde;o importantes mediadores e moderadores da sensibilidade dos adultos. </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Para al&eacute;m dos dados da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o em que se encontram diferen&ccedil;as entre pais e m&atilde;es (ainda por explicar),  a literatura tem caraterizado as m&atilde;es e os pais como parceiros distintos de intera&ccedil;&atilde;o. Geiger (1996) refere que as m&atilde;es  usam com maior frequ&ecirc;ncia o contacto f&iacute;sico, as demonstra&ccedil;&otilde;es afetivas expl&iacute;citas e a verbaliza&ccedil;&atilde;o nas  intera&ccedil;&otilde;es com os filhos, enquanto as intera&ccedil;&otilde;es pais-filhos revestem-se tipicamente de brincadeiras  emocionantes, divertidas, robustas e fisicamente estimulantes (Clarke-Stewart, 1978; Crawley &amp; Sherrod, 1984; Lamb, 1977). Os pais foram  descritos como mais assertivos (Leaper, 2000) e menos responsivos aos desejos dos filhos (Power, 1985; Power &amp; Parke, 1983). Na  comunica&ccedil;&atilde;o, os pais parecem ser mais diretos quando pedem algo aos filhos (e.g., d&aacute;-me o carro), enquanto as m&atilde;es  optam pela <i>negocia&ccedil;&atilde;o </i>(e.g., se comeres tudo deixo-te ver televis&atilde;o), pelo <i>afeto </i>(e.g., querido d&aacute;s a  m&atilde;o &agrave; mam&atilde;?) ou pela <i>justifica&ccedil;&atilde;o </i>(e.g., come tudo para poderes ir brincar mais depressa) (Power,  McGrath, Hughes, &amp; Manire, 1994). N&atilde;o obstante, os pap&eacute;is maternos e paternos est&atilde;o em mudan&ccedil;a, com a  altera&ccedil;&atilde;o do papel da mulher na sociedade ocidental e os dados que tipificam os pap&eacute;is maternos e paternos podem vir a ganhar  novos contornos (Biller, 1993; Lamb 1992; Parke, 1996; Prado &amp; Vieira, 2003). Desta altera&ccedil;&atilde;o de pap&eacute;is, especulamos que  resultem mudan&ccedil;as para a parentalidade e para a qualidade interativa dos pais, e subsequentemente para a qualidade da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o. </p>     <p>Numa pequena investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o explorat&oacute;ria desenvolvida em Portugal (Alves, Fuertes, &amp; Sousa, 2014, in press) com as  m&atilde;es e pais de crian&ccedil;as com 15 meses, as m&atilde;es exibiam quase cerca de 5 vezes mais comportamentos verbais (significando,  expandindo e reelaborando as verbaliza&ccedil;&otilde;es da crian&ccedil;a), o dobro do toque e dos comportamentos afetivos. Os pais, por seu lado,  seguiram com maior frequ&ecirc;ncia os interesses da crian&ccedil;a e aceitaram mais as suas escolhas de atividade (ao contr&aacute;rio do descrito  anteriormente na literatura). Na Alemanha, um grupo de investigadores na &aacute;rea da educa&ccedil;&atilde;o de inf&acirc;ncia quis estudar se o  g&eacute;nero tinha impacto na qualidade de intera&ccedil;&atilde;o de educadores e de educadoras com as crian&ccedil;as (Brandes, Andra, Roseler,  &amp; Schneider-Andrich, 2012). Educadores e educadoras (com a mesma experi&ecirc;ncia e forma&ccedil;&atilde;o profissional) eram convidados a  brincarem em laborat&oacute;rio com crian&ccedil;as entre os 3 e os 6 anos. Os resultados indicaram que os educadores e educadoras escolheram os  mesmos materiais e desenvolveram com as crian&ccedil;as projetos semelhantes. Na verdade, n&atilde;o se encontraram diferen&ccedil;as  significativas entre estes profissionais. Os autores sugerem que a forma&ccedil;&atilde;o profissional teria um papel dissuasor das  diferen&ccedil;as de g&eacute;nero, considerando que elas se devem mais a fatores sociais e culturalmente &ldquo;aprendidos&rdquo;. </p>     <p>Colocam-se, naturalmente, quest&otilde;es metodol&oacute;gicas que importam ainda discutir especialmente no seio da Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o  Estranha. Alguns estudos aplicam o procedimento experimental aos 12 meses com um dos pais e com o outro passados 13 meses, quando n&atilde;o  est&aacute; demonstrado que a crian&ccedil;a n&atilde;o recorde (ao longo da segunda situa&ccedil;&atilde;o experimental) a experi&ecirc;ncia  pr&eacute;via vivida um m&ecirc;s antes. Noutros estudos s&atilde;o usadas amostras independentes e ainda outros recorrem a pequenas  adapta&ccedil;&otilde;es da Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha com maior ou menor valida&ccedil;&atilde;o. Esta diversidade metodol&oacute;gica no  seio da Situa&ccedil;&atilde;o Estranha pode contribuir para o conhecimento da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o em diversas condi&ccedil;&otilde;es. Com  efeito, a maioria dos estudos independentemente da metodologia aplicada indicam diferen&ccedil;as na vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o &agrave; m&atilde;e  e ao pai mas n&atilde;o em todos. Por&eacute;m, para acumular um corpo de conhecimento robusto e consistente que nos permita avan&ccedil;ar para  fases mais complexas de an&aacute;lise, por ventura ser&atilde;o necess&aacute;rias novas reformula&ccedil;&otilde;es metodol&oacute;gicas capazes  de responder &agrave;s limita&ccedil;&otilde;es atuais. </p>     <p>Nos estudos das intera&ccedil;&otilde;es pais-crian&ccedil;a a diversidade metodol&oacute;gica &eacute; enorme partindo de conceitos e  construtos distintos, recolhida em situa&ccedil;&otilde;es laboratoriais, de jogo livre ou em contexto natural, e com sistemas de  cota&ccedil;&atilde;o muito diversos. Faria, Lopes-dos-Santos, Beeghly e Fuertes (in press) questionam a adequa&ccedil;&atilde;o destes sistemas de  cota&ccedil;&atilde;o para avaliar a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o pai-filho que foram desenvolvidos originalmente a partir de observa&ccedil;&otilde;es da  rela&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho. N&atilde;o sabemos se estas escalas integram a diversidade de comportamentos dos pais com as  crian&ccedil;as e das crian&ccedil;as com os pais. </p>     <p>A investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o da vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o com o pai e com a m&atilde;e tem, entre outros, o m&eacute;rito de indicar que a mesma  crian&ccedil;a pode estabelecer uma rela&ccedil;&atilde;o segura com um pai e insegura com outro pai, comprovando a flexibilidade e labilidade da  organiza&ccedil;&atilde;o dos processos de vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o prevista por Bowbly (1969/1982). Para os profissionais da  interven&ccedil;&atilde;o precoce esta &eacute; tamb&eacute;m uma informa&ccedil;&atilde;o valiosa! Os t&eacute;cnicos n&atilde;o devem, apenas,  recolher informa&ccedil;&atilde;o sobre a rela&ccedil;&atilde;o m&atilde;e-filho mas tamb&eacute;m pai-filho. Mais, com base nos estudos  desenvolvidos por Ver&iacute;ssimo, Monteiro e Santos (2006) devem observar e descrever o funcionamento da tr&iacute;ade (pai e m&atilde;e em  intera&ccedil;&atilde;o conjunta com a crian&ccedil;a). </p>     <p>Longe de encontrarmos respostas, ficam perguntas que podem estimular novos estudos: Em que medida as diferen&ccedil;as da  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o associadas ao g&eacute;nero dos pais s&atilde;o afetadas pela cultura? Em que medida os fatores de risco afetam a  vincula&ccedil;&atilde;o com o pai e a intera&ccedil;&atilde;o pai-filho? Qual a natureza espec&iacute;fica das rela&ccedil;&otilde;es e  intera&ccedil;&otilde;es entre pais com as filhas e com os filhos? </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p>REFER&Ecirc;NCIAS </p>     <!-- ref --><p>Ainsworth, M. D. (1965). Further research into the adverse effects of maternal deprivation. In J. Bowlby (Ed.), <i>Child care and growth of  love</i> (pp. 191-235). London: Penguin Book.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000081&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --> </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p>Ainsworth, M. D. (1967). <i>Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and growth of love</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000083&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --> </p>     <p>Ainsworth, M. D., Bell, S., &amp; Stayton, D. (1974). Infant mother attachment and social development: &ldquo;Socialization&rdquo; as a product  reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In M. P. Richards (Ed.), <i>The integration of a child into a social world</i> (pp. 99-135). London: Cambridge  University Press. </p>     <p>Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M., Waters, E., &amp; Wall, S. (1978). <i>Patterns of attachment &ndash; A psychological study of the strange  situation. </i>New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. </p>     <!-- ref --><p>Alves, M. J., Fuertes, M., &amp; Sousa, O. (2014). Estudo da qualidade da intera&ccedil;&atilde;o e da fala dirigida por pais e m&atilde;es.  <i>Atas do VII Encontro Nacional da L&iacute;ngua Portuguesa, 7</i>, 16-17.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000087&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400005&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --> </p>     <p>Atkison, R. L., Atkison, R. C., Smith, E. C., Bem, D. J., &amp; Nolen-Hocksema, S. (2000). <i>Hilgard&rsquo;s introduction to psychology</i>.  New York: Harcourt College Publishers. </p>     <!-- ref --><p>Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bokhorst, C. L., &amp; Schuengel, C. (2004). 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Stability and change in  mother-infant and father-infant interaction in a family setting at one, three, and nine months. <i>Child Development, 55</i>, 692-705. doi:  10.1111/j.1467-8624.1984.tb03808.x &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000094&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400010&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>Belsky, J., &amp; Jaffe, S. R. (2006). The multiple determinants of parenting. In D. Cicchetti &amp; D. J. Cohen (Eds.), <i>Developmental  psychopathology. Vol. 3: Risk, disorder, and adaptation </i>(pp. 38-85). 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(1993). <i>Fathers and families. </i>Westport, CT: Aubum House.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000098&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400013&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --> </p>     <!-- ref --><p>Bokhorst, C. L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Fearon, R. M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Fonagy, P., &amp; Schuengel, C. (2003). The importance of  shared environment in mother-infant attachment security: A behavioral genetic study. <i>Child Development, 74</i>, 1769-1782.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000100&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400014&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --> </p>     <p>Bowlby, J. 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<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p>Brandes, H., Andra, M., Roseler, W., &amp; Schneider-Andrich, P. (2012). <i>Does the gender make a difference? Tandem study on pedagogical  activity of female and male ECE workers</i>.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000103&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400016&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --> Comunica&ccedil;&atilde;o apresentada no 22<sup>th </sup>EECERA Conference, Porto, Portugal. </p>     <!-- ref --><p>Braungart-Rieker, J., Courtney, S., &amp; Garwood, M. M. (1999). Mother-and-father-infant attachment families in context. <i>Journal of Family  Psychology, 13</i>, 535-553. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.13.4.535 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000105&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400017&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>Braungart-Rieker, J. M., Garwood, M. M., Powers, B. P., &amp; Wang, X. (2001). Parental sensitivity, infant affect, and affect regulation:  Predictors of later attachment. <i>Child Development, 72</i>, 252-270. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00277/abstract &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000106&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400018&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p>Brown, G. L., McBride, B. A., Bost, K. K., &amp; Shin, N. (2011). Parental involvement, child temperament, and parents&rsquo; work hours: Differential  relations for mothers and fathers. <i>Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 32</i>, 313-322. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2011.08.004 </p>     <!-- ref --><p>Brundin, K., Rodholm, M., &amp; Larsson, K. (1988). Vocal communication between parents and infants. <i>Early Human Development, 16</i>, 35-53.  doi: 10.1016/0378-3782(88)90085-0 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000108&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400020&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S., &amp; Lamb, M. E. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. <i>Child  Development, 71</i>, 127-136. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00126 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000109&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400021&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p>Caldera, Y., Huston, A., &amp; O&rsquo;Brian, M. (1995). <i>Antecedents of father-infant attachment: A longitudinal study. </i>Paper presented  at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Indianapolis, IN. </p>     <!-- ref --><p>Chase-Lansdale, L., &amp; Owen, M. T. (1987). Maternal employment in a family context: Effects on infant-mother and infant-father attachments.  <i>Child Development, 58</i>, 1505-1512. doi: 10.2307/1130690 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000111&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400023&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p>Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (1978). And daddy makes three: The father&rsquo;s impact on mother and young children. <i>Child Development, 49</i>,  466-478. doi: 10.2307/1128712 </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p>Cicchetti, D., &amp; Barnett, D. (1991). Attachment organization in maltreated preschoolers. <i>Development and Psychopathology, 3</i>, 397-411.  doi: org/10.1017/S0954579400007598 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000113&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400025&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p>Cohn, D. A., Cowan, P. A., Cowan, C. P., &amp; Pearson, J. (1992). Mothers&rsquo; and fathers&rsquo; working models of childhood attachment  relationships, parenting styles, and child behavior. <i>Development and Psychopathology, 4</i>, 417-431. doi: 10.1017/S0954579400000870 </p>     <p>Coleman, W. L., Garfield, C., &amp; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. (2004). 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<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p>Yogman, M. W. (1982). Observations on the father-infant relationships. In S. H. Cath, A. Burwitt, &amp; J. M. Ross (Eds.), <i>Father and  child </i>(pp. 101-122). Boston: Little, Brown.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000293&pid=S0870-8231201400040000400156&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --> </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><b><a name="c0" id="c0"></a><a href="#topc0">CORRESPONDÊNCIA</a></b></p>     <p>A correspond&ecirc;ncia relativa a este artigo dever&aacute; ser enviada para: Marina Fuertes, Escola Superior de Educa&ccedil;&atilde;o do  IPL, Campus de Benfica do IPL, 1549-003 Lisboa; E-mail: <a href="mailto:marinaf@eselx.ipl.pt">marinaf@eselx.ipl.pt</a></p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p>Este estudo foi financiado pela Funda&ccedil;&atilde;o para a Ci&ecirc;ncia e Tecnologia (Bolsa de Investiga&ccedil;&atilde;o  SFRH/BD/43549/2008 e pelo projeto PTDC/PSI_EDD/110682/2009) e comparticipado pelo Fundo Social Europeu e por fundos nacionais do Minist&eacute;rio  da Ci&ecirc;ncia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior.</p>     <p>&nbsp;</p> <i>Submiss&atilde;o: </i>27/04/2014 <i>Aceita&ccedil;&atilde;o: </i>26/06/2014 </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p>NOTAS</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><Sup><a name="1"></a><a href="#top1">1</a></Sup> Clarificamos que usaremos a express&atilde;o &ldquo;pais&rdquo; ou &ldquo;pai&rdquo; para  designar os pais do g&eacute;nero masculino e quando usarmos o plural de pais ser&aacute; apresentada a seguinte designa&ccedil;&atilde;o  &ldquo;pais e m&atilde;es&rdquo;.</p>     <p><Sup><a name="2"></a><a href="#top2">2</a></Sup> &Agrave; excep&ccedil;&atilde;o, apenas, de perturba&ccedil;&otilde;es graves de  altera&ccedil;&atilde;o do desenvolvimento como nalguns casos do espectro do autismo ou situa&ccedil;&otilde;es muito graves de defici&ecirc;ncia  cognitiva.</p>     <p><Sup><a name="3"></a><a href="#top3">3</a></Sup> Esta metodologia tem sido validada atrav&eacute;s de outros estudos com amostras diversificadas  e em contextos culturais diferentes (e.g., Solomon &amp; George, 1999; van IJzendoorn &amp; Kroonenberg, 1988; van IJzendoorn &amp; Sagi, 2008).</p>     <p><Sup><a name="4"></a><a href="#top4">4</a></Sup> Tendo havido uma grande preval&ecirc;ncia de m&atilde;es desempregadas, o estatuto de estar ou  n&atilde;o empregada (ter ou n&atilde;o tempo para brincar com a crian&ccedil;a) n&atilde;o afetou os resultados. Assim, n&atilde;o foram  necessariamente as m&atilde;es com mais tempo que brincaram com os seus filhos.</p>      ]]></body><back>
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