Adelino S. R. Silva

Vanessa Santhiago

Cláudio A. Gobatto

Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Educação Física, Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brasil.

RESUMO

No desporto de alto nível o desenvolvimento de um programa de treinamento físico tem como principal objetivo a maximização da performance. Contudo, caso não ocorra uma periodização do treinamento adequada, os atletas podem desenvolver o fenômeno denominado overtraining ou sobretreino. O overtraining pode ser definido como um distúrbio neuroendócrino, que ocorre no eixo hipotálamo-hipófise, resultado do desequilíbrio entre a demanda do exercício e a capacidade de resposta do organismo. O objetivo do presente estudo de revisão é apresentar fatores inerentes ao overtraining, para que a comunidade científica aprofunde o conhecimento sobre este problema do treinamento e auxilie os profissionais do desporto e atletas a evitá-lo.

Palavras-chave: desporto, treinamento, overtraining.

Understanding overtraining in sports: from definition to treatment.

The main aim of a training program in the high level sport is to enhance performance. Athletes can present overtraining (OT) if an inadequate training periodisation occurs. Overtraining can be defined as a neuroendocrine disturb in hypothalamic-pituitary axis resulting from an unbalance between training and recovery. The aim of this review is to deepen the knowledge about overtraining factors, bringing actual scientific data to help coaches and athletes to deal with this problem, and overcome it.

Key Words: sport, training, overtraining.

Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.

Full text only available in PDF format.

REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS

1. Adlercreutz H, Harkonen M, Kuopassalmi K, Karvonen J (1986). Effect of training on plasma anabolic and catabolic steroid hormones and their response during physical exercise. Int J Sports Med 7: 27-28        [ Links ]

2. Alessio HM, Hagerman AE, Fulkerson BK, Ambrose J, Rice RE, Wiley RL (2000). Generation of reactive oxygen species after exhaustive aerobic and isometric exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:1576-1581

3. Baptista CAS, Ghorayeb N, Dioguardi GS (1999). Sobretreinamento. In Ghorayeb N, Barros T (ed). O Exerc’cio. S‹o Paulo: Atheneu, 313-320

4. Barron GL, NoakesTD, Levy W, Smith C, Millar RP (1985). Hypothalamic dysfunction in overtrained athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60: 803-806

5. Billat V (1996). Use of blood lactate measurements for prediction of exercise performance and for control of training. Sports Med 22:803-806.

6. Bloomer RJ, Goldfarb AH (2004). Anaerobic exercise and oxidative stress: a review. Can J Appl Physiol 29: 245-263.

7. Bosquet L, Leger L., Legros P (2001). Blood Lactate Response to overtraining in male athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 84: 107-114.

8. Brand‹o MRF (1999). Psicologia do Esporte. In Ghorayeb N, Barros T (ed). O Exercício S.Paulo: Atheneu, 239-245.

9. Bruunsgaard H, Galbo H, Halkjaer-Kristensen J, Johansen TL, MacLean DA, Pedersen BK (1997). Exercise-induced increase in interleukin-6 is related to muscle damage. J Physiol (London) 499:833-841.

10. Budjet R (1994). The overtraining syndrome. Br Med J 309: 465-468

12. Cooper CE, Vollaard NB, Choeiri T, Wilson MT (2002). Exercise, free radicals and oxidative stress. Biochem Soc Trans 30: 280-285

13. Di Meo S, Venditti P (2001). Mitochondria in exercise-induced oxidative stress. Biol Signal Recept 10:125-140

14. Droge W (2002). Free radicals in the physiological control of cell function. Physiol Rev 82:47-95

15. Duclos M, Corcuff JB, Arsac L, Moreau-Gaundry F, Rashedi M, Roger P, Tabarin A, Manier G (1998). Corticotroph axis sensitivity after exercise in endurance-trained athletes. Clin Endocrinol 48: 493-501

16. Duclos M, Corcuff JB, Rashedi M, Fougere V, Manier G (1997). Trained versus untrained men: different hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis response to exercise recovery. Eur J Appl Physiol 75: 343-350

17. Durand RJ, Castracane D, Hollander DB, Tryniecki JL, Bamman MM, O`neal S, Herbert EP, Kraemer RR (2003). Hormonal responses from concentric and eccentric muscle contractions. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 937-943

18. Elsayed NM (2001). Antioxidant mobilization in response to oxidative stress: a dynamic environmental-nutritional interaction. Nutrition 17 828-834

19. Filaire E, Bernain X, Sagnol M, Lac G (2001). Preliminary results on mood state, salivary testosterone: cortisol ratio and team performance in professional soccer team. Eur J Appl Physiol 86: 179-184

20. Flynn MG, Pizza FX, Boone JBJr, Andres FF, Michaud TA, Rodrigez-Zayas JR (1994). Indices of training stress during competitive running and swimming seasons. Int J Sports Med 15: 21-26

22. Fry RW, Morton AR, Garcia-Webb P, Crawford GPM, Keast D (1992). Biological responses to overload training in endurance sports. Eur J Appl Physiol 64: 335-344>

23. Fry RW, Morton AR, Keast D (1991). Overtraining in athletes, an update. Sports Med 12: 32-65

24. Fry RW, Morton AR, Keast D (1992). Periodisation of training stress, a review. Can J Sport Sci 17: 234-240

25. Gabriel HH, Urhausen A, Valet G, Heidelbach U, Kindermann W (1998). Overtraining and immune system: A prospective longitudinal study in endurance athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 1151-1157

26. Gastmann UA, Lehmann MJ (1998). Overtraining and the BCAA hypothesis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:128-139

27. Gleeson M, McDonald WA, Cripps AW, Pyne DB, Claney RL, Fricker PA (1995). The effect on immunity of long term intensive training on elite swimmers. Clin Exp Immunol 102: 210-216

28. Gorostiaga EM, Izquierdo M, Rusta M, Iribarren J, González-Badillo JJ, Ib‡nez J (2004). Strength training effects on physical performance and serum hormones in young soccer players. Eur J Appl Physiol 91: 698-707

29. Hack V, Strobel G, Weiss MN, Weicker H (1994). PMN cell counts and phagocytic activity of highly trained athletes depend on training period. J Appl Physiol 77: 1731-1735

30. Halson LS, Lancaster GI, Jeukendrup AE, Gleeson M (2003). Immunological responses to overreaching in cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 854-861

32. Hoogeveen AR, Zonderland ML (1996). Relationships between testosterone, cortisol, and performance in professional cyclists. Int J Sports Med 17: 423-428

33. Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Gordon RD, Bachmann AW (1993). Hormonal responses of elite swimmers to overtraining. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25: 741-747

34. Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Howard A, Gordon RD, Bachmann AW (1995). Markers for monitoring overtraining and recovery in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 106-112

35. Hurley BF, Hagberg JM, Allen WK, Seals DR, Young JC, Cuddihee RW, Holloszy JO (1984). Effect of training on blood lactate levels during submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 56: 1260-1264

36. Israel SZ (1976). Problematik des Ÿbertraings aus internisistischer und leistungs physiologischer sicht. Med Sport 16: 1-12

37. Jacobs I (1986). Blood lactate: implications for training and sports performance. Sports Med 3: 10-25

38. Jenkins RR, Goldfarba A (1993). Introduction: oxidant stress, aging and exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25: 210-212

39. Jeukendrup AE, Hessellink MKC, Snyder AC, Kuipers H, Keizer HA (1992). Physiological changes in male competitive cyclists after two weeks of intensified training. Int J Sports Med 13: 534-541

40. Kirwan JP, Costill DL, Fynn MG, Mitchell JB, Fink WJ, Neufer PD, Houmard JA (1988). Physiological responses to successive days of intense training in competitive swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 20: 255-259

42. Konig D, Wagner KH, Elmadfa I, Berg A (2001). Exercise and oxidative stress: significance of antioxidants with reference to inflammatory, muscular, and systemic stress. Exerc Immunol Rev 7:108-133

43. Koutedakis Y, Sharp CC (1998). Seasonal variations of injury and overtraining in elite athletes. Clin J Sports Med 8: 18-21

44. Kuipers H, Keizer HA (1988). Overtraining in elite athletes: review and directions for the future. Sports Med 6: 79-92

45. Lamprecht M, Greilberger J, Oetti K (2004). Analytical aspects of oxidatively modified substances in sports and exercises. Nutrition 20: 728-730

46. Lehmann M, Baumgartl P, Weisenack C, Seidel A, Baumann H, Fischer S, Spori U, Gendrisch G, Kaminski R, Keul J (1992). Training-overtraining: influence of a defined increase in training volume vs training intensity on performance, catecholamine and some metabolic parameters in experienced middle- and long-distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 64: 169-177

47. Lehmann M, Dickhuth HH, Gendrisch G, Lazar W, Thum M, Kaminsky R, Aramend JF, Peterke E, Wieland W, Keul J (1991). Training-overtraining: a prospective, experimental study with experienced middle and long distance runners. Int J Sports Med 12: 444-452

48. Lehmann M, Foster C, Keul J (1993). Overtraining in endurance athletes: a brief review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25: 854-862

49. Lehmann M, Gastmann U, Petersen KG, Bachl N, Seidel A, Khalaf AN, Fischer S, Keul J (1992). Training-overtraining: performance and hormonal levels after a defined increase in training volume vs. intensity in experienced middle and long-distance runners. Br J Sports Med 26: 233-242

50. Lehmann M, Jakob E, Gastmann U, Steinacker JM, Keul J (1995). Unaccustomed high mileage compared to intensity training-related neuromuscular excitability in distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 70: 457-461

52. Lehmann M, Schnee W, Scheu R, Stockhausen W, Bachl N (1992). Decreased nocturnal catecholamine excretion: Parameter for an overtraining syndrome in athletes? Int J Sports Med 13: 236-242

53. Lehmann M, Wieland H, Gastmann U (1997). Influence of an unaccustomed increase in training volume vs intensity on performance, hematological and blood-chemical parameters in distance runners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 37: 110-116

54. Leitzmann L, Jung K, Seiler D (1991). Effect of an extreme physical endurance performance on selected plasma proteins. Int J Sports Med 12: 100

55. Luger A, Deuster PA., Kyle SB, Gallucci WT, Montgomery LC, Gold PW, Lynn-Loriaux D, Chrousos GP (1987). Acute hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to the stress of treadmill exercise. N Engl J Med 316: 1309-1315

56. Mackinnon LT (2000). Overtraining effects on immunity and performance in athletes. Immunol Cell Biol 78: 502-509

57. Mackinnon LT, Hooper SL (1996). Plasma glutamine and upper respiratory tract infection during intensified training is swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28: 285-90

58. Mackinnon LT, Hooper SL, Jones S, Gordon RD, Bachmann A (1997). Hormonal, immunological, and hematological responses to intensified training in swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 29: 1637-1645

59. Matvienko LA (1981). A study of peripheral blood in track and field athletes. Sov Sports Rev 16: 50-51

60. McNair DM, Lorr M, Droppleman LF (1971). Profile of mood states manual. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Services

62. Morgan WP, Brown DR, Raglin JS, OÕConnor PJ, Ellickson KA (1987). Physiological monitoring of overtraining and staleness. Br J Sports Med 21: 107-114

63. Newhouse IJ, Clement DB (1988). Iron status in athletes, an update. Sports Med 5: 337-352

64. Newsholme EA (1994). Biochemical mechanisms to explain immunosopression in well-trained and overtrained athletes. Int J Sports Med 15: 142-147

65. Noakes T (1991). Lore of Running . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 408-425

66. O' Connor PJ, Morgan WP, Raglin JS, Barksdale CM, Kalin NH (1989). Mood state and salivary cortisol levels following overtraining in female swimmers. Physichoneuroendocrinology 14: 303-310

67. Ostrowski K, Hermann C, Bangash A, Schjerling P, Nielsen JN, Pedersen BK (1998). A trauma-like elevation in plasma cytokines in humans in response to treadmill running. J Physiol (Lond) 508:949-953

68. Ostrowski K, Rohde T, Asp S, Schjerling P, Pedersen BK (1998). The cytokine balance and strenuous exercise: TNF-alpha, IL-2beta, IL-6, IL-1ra, sTNF-r1, sTNF-r2, and IL-10. J Physiol (Lond) 515:287-291

69. Pedersen BK, Rohde T, Ostrowski K (1998). Recovery of the immune system after exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 162:325-332

70. Peluso MAM (2003). Alterações de humor associadas à atividade física intensa. Tese (Doutorado)-Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo: São Paulo.

72. Prada FJA, Voltarelli FA, Oliveira CAM, Gobatto CA, Macedo DV, Mello MAR (2004). Condicionamento aeróbio e estresse oxidativo em ratos treinados por natação em intensidade equivalente ao limiar anaeróbio. Rev Bras Cien Mov 12: 29-34

73. Pyne DB, Baker MS, Fricker PA, MacDonald WA, Telford RD, Weidemann MJ (1995). Effects of an intensive 12 wk training program by elite swimmers on neutrophil oxidase activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 536-542

74. Rivier A, Pene J, Chanez P, Anselme F, Caillaud C, Pre-Faut C, Godard P, Bousquet J (1994). Release of Cytokines by blood monocytes during strenuous exercise. Int J Sports Med 15:192-198

75. Rossi L, Tirapegui J (1999). Aspectos atuais sobre exercício físico, fadiga e nutrição. Rev Pauli Ed Fís 13:.67-82

76. Seene T, Umnova M, Kaasik P (1999). The exercise myopathy. In: Lehmann M, Foster C, Gastmann U, Keizer H, Steinacker J (ed). Overload, Performance Incompetence and Regeneration in Sport. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 119-130

77. Smith JA (1995). Exercise, training, and red cell turnover. Sports Med 19: 9-31

78. Smith JA, Telford RD, Mason IB, Weidemann MJ (1990). Exercise, training and neutrophil microbicidal activity. Int J Sports Med 11: 179-87

79. Smith LL (2000). Cytokine hypothesis of overtraining: a physiological adaptation to excessive stress? 32: 317-331

80. Snyder AC, Jeukendrup AE, Hesselink MKC, Kuipers H, Foster C (1993). A physiological/psychological indicator of overtraining during intensive training. Int J Sports Med 14: 29-32

82. Ullum H, Haahr PM, Diamant M, Palmo J, Halkjaer Kristenses J, Pedersen BK (1994). Bicycle exercise enhances plasma IL-6 but not change IL-1α IL-1 β, IL-6, or TNF:α pre-mRNA in BMNC. J Appl Physiol 77:93-97

83. Urhausen A, Gabriel H, Kindermann W (1998). Impaired pituitary hormonal response to exhaustive exercise in overtrained endurance athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 407-414

84. Uusitalo AL, Uusitalo AJ, Rusko HK (1998). Endurance training, overtraining and baroreflex sensitivity in female athletes. Clin Physiol 18: 510-20

85. Venkatraman JT, Pendergast D (1998). Effect of the level of dietary fat intake and endurance exercise on plasma cytokines in runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 1198-1204

86. Verde T, Thomas SC, Shepard RJ (1992). Potential markers of heavy training in highly trained distance runners. Br J Sports Med 26: 167-175

87. Verma SK, Makindroo SR, Kansal DK (1978). Effect of four weeks of hard physical training on certain physiological and morphological parameters of basketball players. J Sports Med 18:379-384

88. Vervoon C, Quist AM, Vermulst JM, Erich WBM, DeVries WR, Thussen HH (1991). The behavior of the plasma free testosterona/cortisol ratio during a season of elite rowing training. Int J Sports Med 12: 257-263

89. Yu BP (1994). Cellular defenses against damage from reactive oxygen species. Physiol Rev74: 139-161.0

90. Zavorsky GS (2000). Evidence and possible mechanisms of altered maximum heart rate with endurance training and tapering. Sports Med 29: 13-26

AGRADECIMENTOS

Apoio financeiro: FAPESP (processo 03/04214-3); CNPq (processo 130441/2004-0); Fundunesp (processo 00844/03-DFP).

CORRESPONDÊNCIA

Adelino Sanchez Ramos da Silva

Rua Rui Barbosa no 221

Vila Monteiro

13560-330, São Carlos, São Paulo

Brasil