<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>2184-2078</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Political Observer - Revista Portuguesa de Ciência Política]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[PO-RPCP]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>2184-2078</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[OBSERVATÓRIO POLÍTICO ]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S2184-20782022000100157</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.33167/2184-2078.rpcp2022.17/pp.157-171</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="pt"><![CDATA[Discussing Health Disinformation: Politicizing Pestilence]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="pt"><![CDATA[Discutindo a Desinformação em Saúde: Politizando a Pestilência]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cabral]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidade de Lisboa Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociaise Políticas ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>Portugal</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>30</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>30</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>17</volume>
<fpage>157</fpage>
<lpage>171</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2184-20782022000100157&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S2184-20782022000100157&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S2184-20782022000100157&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="pt"><p><![CDATA[Abstract The COVID Pandemic refreshed the Global Society&#8217;s collective memory of just how vital Human Security is to its inner workings. However, it also opened a niche of action for Powers bent on sabotaging and domineering their rivals. In managing death and disease many hard to shed historical sensibilities come to light, making them into prime targets for Disinformation. By cross-referencing material on the evolution of the social perception of immunization we can pinpoint three specific fragilities in Western consciousness towards Pandemic Responses: Institutional Exceptionalism; Discrimination Enablement; and Parental Protectiveness. By focusing the aforementioned categories, a malicious actor can increase the unease within its target, revitalizing an ongoing Health Crisis and ultimately facilitate its subversion. Admittedly, the political roots of issues such as these has long since been reflected upon by Foucault in his essays on Biopolitics. These anxieties - spurred by our inherently Biological selves - are intrinsic, thus easily spilling into the domain of Civil Society and of its administration. Aaltola later expanded on the unseen political power of Pandemics and how it facilitates the hijacking of State Governance into predatory ritualistic behaviours.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="pt"><p><![CDATA[Resumo A Pandemia de Covid-19 refrescou a memória coletiva da Sociedade Global quanto à vitalidade da Segurança Humana para o seu funcionamento. No entanto, abriu também um nicho de ação para Poderes determinados à sabotagem e subversão dos seus rivais. Ao gerir a morte e a doença, muitas são as sensibilidades históricas que vêm ao de cima - tornando-se alvos fáceis à Desinformação. Ao examinar material referente à evolução das perceções sociais da imunização no ocidente, podemos apontar três sensibilidades intrínsecas no processo de resposta a pandemias ocidental: o Excepcionalismo Institucional; a Facilitação da Discriminação; e a Ansiedade Parental. Ao focar estas categorias um ator malicioso pode agir de forma a incrementar a instabilidade dentro do seu alvo - facilitando a sua derrota. Este tipo de problemáticas - já discutido por Foucault nos seus ensaios sobre Biopolítica - incidem sobre as nossas ansiedades biológicas, que tão facilmente vertem para o domínio da Sociedade Civil. Dinâmicas também exploradas por Aaltola, que sublinha o papel das crises de saúde no sequestro da normalidade nos procedimentos de governo, conduzindo a comportamentos perigosamente ritualísticos.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[biopoder]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[desinformação]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[immunization-hesitancy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[misinformation]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[politisomatic]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[PsyOps]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[biopower]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[disinformation]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[immunization-hesitancy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[misinformation]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[politisomatic]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[PsyOps]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><back>
<ref-list>
<ref id="B1">
<label>1</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Aaltola]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Understanding the Politics of Pandemic Scares]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Routledge]]></source>
<year>2012</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Kindle Edition]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<label>2</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<collab>BBC</collab>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Russia Trolls 'spreading vaccination misinformation' to create discord]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[BBC News, US &amp; Canada]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<label>3</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Blume]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Immunization: How Vaccines Became Controversial]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Reaktion Books]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Edição do Kindle]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<label>4</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Broniatowski D]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Jamison A]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Qi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[AlKulaib]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Chen]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Benton]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Quinn S]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dredze]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Weaponized Health Communication: Twitter Bots and Russian Trolls Amplify the Vaccine Debate]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Journalof Public Health, PubMed Central (PMC)]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<label>5</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bufacchi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[V]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Is Coronavirus Bad for Populism?. 21st Century Global Dynamics]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Global-e, Series: Covid-19 and Populism]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<label>6</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Chance]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Smith-Spark]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Tensions are rising on Ukraine's border with Russia]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Here's what you need to know, CNN World]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<label>7</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Conis]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vaccine Nation: America's Changing Relationship with Immunization]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The University of Chicago Press]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Edição do Kindle]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<label>8</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Coombs H]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Tardy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Berger]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Salloum]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Iftimie Ion]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ozawa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[COVID-19: NATO in the Age of Pandemics]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[NATO Defense College]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<label>9</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<collab>Department of Defence</collab>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Doctrine for Joint Psychological Operations]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Joint Pub]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<page-range>3-53</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<label>10</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Espejo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Teflon Populism: Will it Slip or Falter?, 21st Century Global Dynamics, Global-e]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Series: Covid-19 and Populism]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<label>11</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<collab>Euronews</collab>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[EU slams Russia and China for Western vaccines disinformation campaign]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[European Affairs]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<label>12</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Foucault]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Birth of Biopolitics - Lectures at the Collège de France 1978-1979]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Palgrave, translation by Graham Burchell]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<label>13</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Foucault]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Security, Territory, Population - Lectures at the Collège de France 1977-1978]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Palgrave, translation by Graham Burchell]]></source>
<year>2009</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<label>14</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Galea]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Reckoning With COVID-19 Exceptionalism]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[JAMA Health Forum]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<label>15</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Wilder-Smith]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[COVID-19 in comparison with other emerging viral diseases: risk of geographic spread via travel]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[US National Library of Medicine]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<label>16</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gordon M]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Volz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Russian Disinformation Campaign Aims to Undermine Confidence in Pfizer, Other Covid-19 Vaccines, U.S. Officials Say]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Wall Street Journal, National Security]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<label>17</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hui]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[China's Vaccine Diplomacy has an Aggressive Anti-vax Element]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Quartz]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<label>18</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Juergensmeyer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Covid-19 and Cultural Nationalism, 21st Century Global Dynamics]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Global-e, Series: Covid-19 and Populism]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<label>19</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kier]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Stronski]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Russia's Vaccine Diplomacy Is Mostly Smoke and Mirrors]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Cambridge Endowment for International Peace]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B20">
<label>20</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kirk]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McDonald]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B21">
<label>21</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lekhan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[V]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Ukraine: Health System Review]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Health Systems in Transition]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>17</volume>
<edition>2</edition>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B22">
<label>22</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lincoln]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Study the role of hubris in nations' COVID-19 response, World View]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Nature]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B23">
<label>23</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nye J]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Democracy's Dilemma]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Boston Review]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B24">
<label>24</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pinto]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Contágios - 2500 Anos de Pestes]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Publicações Dom Quixote]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<edition>1</edition>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B25">
<label>25</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sabbagh]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Ukraine urges Nato to hasten membership as Russian troops gather]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Guardian]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B26">
<label>26</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schafer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Frankland]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kohlenberg]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Soula]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Influence-enza: How Russia, China, and Iran Have Shaped and Manipulated Coronavirus Vaccine Narratives, Alliance for Securing Democracy, available through]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B27">
<label>27</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schwartz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Down the Wrong Path: Path Dependence, Increasing Returns, and Historical Institutionalism]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Department of Politics, University of Virginia]]></source>
<year>2004</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B28">
<label>28</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Selim]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Measles explained: What's behind the recent outbreaks? Reported cases of measles rose by 200 per cent from 2018 to 2019]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Unicef]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B29">
<label>29</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>The Lancet</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Measles, war, and health-care reforms in Ukraine,]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>392</volume>
<numero>10149</numero>
<issue>10149</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B30">
<label>30</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<collab>UN</collab>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Trust in public institutions: Trends and implications for economic security, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, available through]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[UN/DESA Policy Brief #108]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</article>
