<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>2795-4757</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Political Observer]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Political Observer]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>2795-4757</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[OBSERVATÓRIO POLÍTICO ]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S2795-47572024000200043</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.59071/2795-4765.rpcp2024.22/pp.43-63</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Trading of Votes in Sub-National Election in Nigeria: An Empirical Study of the Nature of Vote-Buying and Turn-Out Buying in Kebbi State During the 2023 General Elections]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="pt"><![CDATA[Comércio de Votos nas Eleições Subnacionais na Nigéria: Um Estudo Empírico Sobre a Natureza da Compra de Votos e da Compra de Participação no Estado de Kebbi Durante as Eleições Gerais de 2023]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Musa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Aminu]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ibrahim]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Abubakar]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Yahaya]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Aliyu]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,Federal University Birnin Kebbi Department of Political Science ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Kebbi State ]]></addr-line>
<country>Nigeria</country>
</aff>
<aff id="Af2">
<institution><![CDATA[,University of Greenwich Faculty of Engineering and Sciences Department of Livelihood and Institutions, Natural Resources Institute]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[London ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="Af3">
<institution><![CDATA[,Ahmadu Bello University Department of Political Science &amp; International Studies ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Zaria ]]></addr-line>
<country>Nigeria</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<numero>22</numero>
<fpage>43</fpage>
<lpage>63</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2795-47572024000200043&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S2795-47572024000200043&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://scielo.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S2795-47572024000200043&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Abstract The literature on vote buying in democracies worldwide abounds, although with visible conceptual gaps stemming from the current discourse in conceptualising its various genres such as vote selling, retailing, and wholesaling, and votes trading, among others. This conceptual deficit has been further overshadowed by leading theoretical debates and the emergence of two competing theoretical models of vote buying and turn-out buying, as if the two can be conceptually separated. Therefore, using empirical data generated from a survey in Kebbi State, Nigeria, during the 2023 general elections, these models of vote trading phenomenon were critically evaluated. Thus, critical stakeholders in the electoral process were surveyed. Consequently, the survey employed relevant mixed-method tools to generate both quantitative and qualitative data. In the final analysis, the paper found out that votes were traded with material items at different stages of the electoral process and political actors involved in vote trading have cut across the participating political parties during the elections.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="pt"><p><![CDATA[Resumo A literatura sobre a compra de votos nas democracias em todo o mundo é abundante, embora com lacunas conceptuais visíveis decorrentes do discurso corrente na conceptualização dos seus vários géneros, como a venda e comércio de votos, entre outros. Este défice conceptual foi ainda ensombrado pelos principais debates teóricos e pelo surgimento de dois modelos teóricos concorrentes de compra de votos e de compra de participação, como se os dois pudessem ser conceptualmente separados. Portanto, usando dados empíricos gerados a partir de uma pesquisa no estado de Kebbi, Nigéria, durante as eleições gerais de 2023, esses modelos de fenómeno de comércio de votos foram avaliados criticamente. Assim, foram inquiridas partes interessadas críticas no processo eleitoral. Consequentemente, o inquérito utilizou ferramentas relevantes de métodos mistos para gerar dados quantitativos e qualitativos. Na análise final, o artigo descobriu que os votos foram trocados por itens materiais em diferentes estágios do processo eleitoral e os atores políticos envolvidos no comércio de votos envolveram os participantes dos partidos políticos durante as eleições.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Elections]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[vote trading]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[vote buying]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[turnout voter buying]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Kebbi State and Nigeria.]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[eleições]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[comércio de votos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[compra de votos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[compra de participação eleitoral]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Estado de Kebbi]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[Nigéria.]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><back>
<ref-list>
<ref id="B1">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ake]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Democracy and Development in Africa]]></source>
<year>1996</year>
<page-range>975029-336</page-range><publisher-loc><![CDATA[Ibadan ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Spectrum Books Ltd]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Allen]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Allen]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote fraud and data validity. In J. Clubb, W. Flanigan, &amp; N. Zingale]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Analyzing Electoral History: A Guide to the Study of Ameriacan Voter Behaviour]]></source>
<year>1981</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Beverly Hills]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Christopher]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ogbotubo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gesiye]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[I.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote-buying and democratic governance in Nigeria]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Advances in Politics and Economics]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>5</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>81-9</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dauda]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Adamu]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ahmodu-Tijani]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote trading in Nigeria politics]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Asian People Journal (APJ)]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>2</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>42-51</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>Federal Republic of Nigeria</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Gazetted electoral act]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Lagos ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Federal Government Printer]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fraile]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Political kowledge and the logic of voting: A comparative study]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[A Working Paper]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Centre for Advanced Study in the Social Sciences. Madrid]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gans-Morse]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mazzuca]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nichter]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Who get bought? Vote buying, turnout buying and other strategies]]></source>
<year>2009</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[USA ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Guerra]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Justesen]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote buying and redistribution]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Public Choice]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>193</volume>
<page-range>315-44</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hicken]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Clientelism]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Annual Review of Political Science]]></source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>14</volume>
<page-range>289-310</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Irabo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote trading, voters behaviour and electoral governance in Nigeria]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[International Journal of Political Science]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>6</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>1-12</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Irabo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nwamadi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote-trading, voters behaviour and electoral governance in Nigeria]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[International Journal of Political Science]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>6</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>105-19</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kao]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lust]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rakner]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote-buying, anti-corruption campaigns, and identity in African elections]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[World Development]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>160</volume>
<page-range>1-10</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kennedy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The price of democracy: Vote buying and village election in China]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Asian Politics and Policy]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>2</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>616-31</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kramon]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Where is vote buying effective?]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Evidence from a list experiment in Kenya]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mayowa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[I.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote trading and electoral success in Nigeria democracy]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[International Journal of Criminology and Sociology]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>10</volume>
<page-range>1362-6</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mohammed]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Dilemmas of democracy: Civil society and development in Nigeria&#8217;s Fourth Republic]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Kano ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Bayero University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nichter]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote buying or turnout buying? Machine politics and the secret ballot]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Political Science Review]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>102</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>19-31</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Olaniyan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Election sophistication and the changing contours of vote buying in Nigeria&#8217;s 2019 general elections]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Round Table]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>109</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>386-95</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Stokes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Perverse accountability: A formal model of machine politics with evidence from Argentina]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Political Science Review]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<volume>99</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>315-25</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B20">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Stokes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Political clientelism. In C. Boix, &amp; S. Stokes]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics]]></source>
<year>2009</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B21">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Vande]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Vote buying and credible elections in Nigeria: An opinion survey of voters on the 2019 general election in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Journal of the Society for Peace Studies and Practice]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>1</volume>
<page-range>125-42</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B22">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Wantchekon]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Clientelism and voting behaviour: Evidence from a field experiment in Benin]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[World Politics]]></source>
<year>2003</year>
<volume>55</volume>
<page-range>399-422</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</article>
